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SLOAN'S 


CONSTRUCTIVE  ARCHITECTURE; 


GUIDE  TO  THE  PRACTICAL  BUILDER  AND  MECHANIC. 


IN   WHICH    IS   CONTAINED 


A  SERIES  OF  DESIGNS  FOE  DOMES,  ROOFS  AND  SPIRES, 


A   NUMBER  OF  PLATES   SHOWING  THE  INTERIOR  CONSTRUCTION   AND   FINISH   OF  BAYS,  WINDOW 
SHUTTERS,  SLIDING  DOORS,  ETC.,  DESIGNED   EXPRESSLY  FOR  THE  JOINER'S  USE; 

CHOICE   EXAMPLES   OF 

THE  FIVE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE, 

SELECTED    FROM   THE    MOST    CELEBRATED    SPECIMENS    OF   ANTIQUITY,  WITH   THE    FIGURED    DIMENSIONS    OF 
THEIR   HEIGHT,   PROJECTION   AND    PROFILE,  AND    THEIR    DIVISION   INTO    PARTS. 

TO   WHICH   IS   ADDED 

A    NUMBER    OF    USEFUL    GEOMETRICAL    PROBLEMS, 

EXAMPLES   OF   GROINS,  CENTERING   FOR  ARCHES,  DIAGRAMS  OF   STAIR   LINES,  WITH   ARCHITRAVES,  DOOR   MOULDINGS,  ETC. 

THE   WHOLE   BEING 

|Ihistrnt£i)  IriT  Siilg-si^  Car^fullg  ^rcparcb  plates, 

ACCOMPANIED  BY  EXPLANATORY   TEXT   AND   GENERAL  ESSAYS,  TO  WHICH   IS   APPENDED  A  COPIOUS   GLOSSARY. 


BY 

SAMUEL    SLOAN,   ARCHITECT, 

AUTHOR    OF    THE    "MODEL    ARCHITECT,"    "CITY    AND    STIBTTRBAN    ARCHITECTURE,"    ETC. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT    k   CO. 

1859. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859,  by 

SAMUEL     SLOAN, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


PREFACE. 


TnE  idea  of  publishing  a  practical  work  on  Constructive  Architecture  suggested  itself  to  the 
author  while  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  the  material  for  a  large  volume  of  architectural  designs.  The 
suggestion  was  natural.  It  might  well  be  supposed  that,  while  works  on  every  other  branch  of  science 
were  teeming  from  the  press,  a  volume  specially  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  practical  builder  or 
mechanic  would  prove  no  less  seasonable  than  useful. 

Few  works  of  this  character  have  hitherto  been  published  in  this  country — and  still  fewer  are  pos- 
sessed of  any  considerable  degree  of  merit.  We  have  been  generally  accustomed  to  consider  foreign  publi- 
cations as  our  standards;  and  these,  though  possessing  many  things  valuable  in  themselves,  are  yet  not 
well  adapted — as  they  were  not  designed — to  elucidate  methods  of  practice  which  are,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  local  and  peculiar.  In  fact,  owing  to  the  spirit  of  improvement  and  invention  which  has  of  late 
characterized  this  branch  of  mechanics  among  us,  many  even  of  the  terms  in  general  acceptance  a  few 
short  years  ago  have  become  obsolete,  while  numerous  little  methods  and  appliances  are  in  every-day  use, 
of  which  no  mention  can  be  found  in  the  most  recent  of  European  authorities. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  in  the  classification  of  our  subjects,  we  have  aimed  at  preserving  some  degree  of 
systematic  arrangement.  Commencing  with  domes,  we  have  presented  in  natural  succession  numerous 
examples  of  forms  generally  esteemed  the  most  useful  in  Constructive  Carpentry.  These  are  original  and 
eminently  practical.  There  has  been  no  straining  after  effect.  Everything  presented  has  been  selected 
and  illustrated  solely  on  account  of  its  practicability  and  intrinsic  usefulness.  Our  numerous  roof  examples 
are  of  simple  yet  reliable  construction  and  tested  capability.  The  examples  in  Joinery,  which  succeed, 
contain  and  are  suggestive  of  many  new  ideas.  And  to  the  illustration  of  those  beautiful  and  unique 
creations  of  the  ancients — the  Five  Orders — on  which  all  that  pertains  to  the  builder's  art  is  founded,  we 
have  devoted  much  more  space  than  is  usually  given  in  works  of  similar  character  and  pretension.  Fully 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  this  subject  to  all  connected  with  or  engaged  in  the  art  of  building,  we 
have  chosen  our  examples  from  the  most  celebrated  and  beautiful  specimens  of  antiquity,  and  presented 
them,  we  trust,  in  a  style  of  art  commensurate  with  the  interest  they  possess,  and  the  intrinsic  beauty  of 
their  several  proportions. 

Nor  has  the  consideration  of  the  more  important  parts  of  geometrical  construction,  as  applied  to 
building,  been  neglected.  While  we  have  omitted  many  of  the  comparatively  useless  problems  with  which 
works  of  this  description  usually  abound,  we  have  yet  been  careful  to  present  such  examples  as  were  in 
themselves  important  and  really  serviceable.  We  may  instance,  among  these,  the  plates  of  groins  and 
centering,  and  the  carefully  prepared  diagrams  of  stair-lines,  which  will  be  found  extremely  valuable.  Our 
work  concludes   with    some   choice    examples   of    architraves,  moulded   panelings   for   doors,  etc.,  specially 


'y 


2*7940 


4  P  11  E  F  A  C  E. 

designed  and  adapted  for  the  Joiner's  use.  Of  the  whole  of  our  examirtes,  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
they  are  not  only  practical  in  themselves,  but  highly  suggestive  of  ideas — as  to  new  forms  and  combina- 
tions— to  the  artisan  who  peruses  them  with  careful  study. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  text,  we  have,  in  every  instance,  for  the  convenience  of  the  reader,  placed 
the  plate  opposite  the  appropriate  description,  thus  obviating  an  annoyance  often  experienced  in  illus- 
trated publications,  when  the  example  is  separated  from  its  relevant  matter.  To  such  general  information 
as  we  deemed  would  prove  interesting,  in  connection  with  the  several  subjects  of  which  we  treated,  and 
be  likely  still  further  to  illustrate  them,  we  have  uniformly  devoted  a  certain  portion  of  our  space.  Thus 
interspersed  with  the  descriptions — and  yet  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  distinct  in  its  own  particular 
arrangement — will  be  found  much  valuable  matter,  culled  from  the  works  of  the  most  eminent  masters,  in 
addition  to  the  information  bearing  directly  upon  the  subject-matter,  which  the  experience  gathered  in  the 
course  of  a  long  and  extensive  professional  practice  has  supplied. 

Our  work  would  be  incomplete  without  a  Glossary — that  which  is  appended  will  be  found  useful  and 
compendious. 

We  have  long  been  aware  of  the  urgent  necessity  which  existed  for  a  work  of  this  character ; 
and  our  aim  in  the  present  volume  has  been  to  place  within  the  reach  of  every  mechanic  the  more 
advanced  principles  of  his  art.  These  principles  are  illustrated  by  practical  examples.  At  the  same 
time,  a  careful  study  of  the  details  of  classic  design,  as  exhibited  in  the  Orders,  will  teach  him  by  com- 
parison to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  general  proportions  necessary  to  be  observed  in  any  proposed 
work,  while  an  attentive  perusal  of  the  different  geometrical  and  isometrical  drawings  will  enable  him  to 
comprehend  the  best  method  of  applying  material  in  the  more  difficult  parts  of  mechanical  construction. 

The  illustrations  may  be  safely  left  to  speak  their  own  merits  :  one  word  in  regard  to  them  and  we 
have  done.  They  have  been  prepared  at  considerable  expense,  and  in  a  manner  calculated  to  afford 
satisfaction,  and  are  referred  to  with  some  little  degree  of  pride  and  pleasure,  as  evidencing  the  rapid 
progress  which  our  country  is  making  in  this  important  and  beautiful  department  of  the  fine  arts. 


CONTENTS. 


Preface 

List  of  Illustkations 


Historical  Notice 
Descriptive  of  Plates 


DOMES. 


9 
12 


General  Essay  on  Eoofs 
Descriptive  of  Plates 

Essay  on  Spires 
Descriptive  of  Plates 


KOOF  AND  SPIRE  CONSTRUCTION. 


21 
22 
39 
52 


General  Essay    . 
Descriptive  of  Plates 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


55 
56 


THE  FIVE  ORDERS,  (First  Series.) 


Introductory 

Grecian  Doric,  Descriptive 

"         Ionic,  Remarks 

"  "      Descriptive 

Roman  Doric,  Remarks 

"  "      Descriptive 

The  Orders  in  General 
Modern  Doric,  Descriptive 
Roman  Ionic,  Remarks 

"  "      Descriptive  . 

Corinthian,  Remarks    . 

•'  "         Descriptive 


71 

72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 


THE  ORDERS   IN   PARTS,  (Second  Series.) 

Tuscan  Order,  Principal  Parts  ...... 

■•  "      Pedestal  and  Base,  Descriptive     .  .  .  •  • 

"'  "      General  Remarks  ....•■ 

"  "      Entablature  and  Capital,  Descriptive        .... 


83 

84 
85 
86 


(6) 


CONTENTS. 


Doric   Order,  Principal  Parts 

"  "      Pedestal  and  Base,  Descriptive     . 

"  "      General  Remarks 

"      Entablature  and  Capital,  Descriptive 
Ionic  Order,  Principal  Parts     .... 

"         "      Pedestal  and  Base,  Descriptive 
"  "       General  Remarks 

"      Entablature,  Descriptive 
Corinthian  Order,  Principal  Parts 

"  "       Pedestal  and  Base,  Descriptive 

"  "      General  Remarks     .  .        ■    . 

"  "      Entablature,  Descriptive 

Composite  Order,  Principal  Parts 

"  "      Pedestal  and  Base,  Descriptive 

"  "       General  Remarks     . 

"  "      Entablature,  Descriptive 

General  Essay  on  the  Orders  ...... 

Details  of  Caps,  Bases,  Architraves,  etc.,  to  the  Orders,  Descriptive 
Classic  Doors  and  'Windows,  Descriptive        .... 

Mouldings,  etc.,  General  Essay       ..... 

"  Descriptive   ....... 

Definitions    ........ 

Glossary  ........ 

Geometrical  Problems        ...... 


PAOB 

.   87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

9.T 

96 

97 

98 

. 

99 

100 

. 

101 

102 

103 

104 

112 

115 

116 

119 

. 

121 

122 

PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 


Tracery,  Descriptive 
Arches,  " 

Groins,  " 


126 
128 
130 


JOINERY. 


Geometrical  Stair-lines,  Descriptive 
Moulded  Architraves,  " 

"         Panelings,  " 

Geometrical  Definitions 


136 
142 
146 
148 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


DOME. 


I. — Perspective 

n. — Plan  and  Section        .  . 

in. — Transverse  Section 
IV.— Plan  showing  Principal  Construction 


PAGE 
12 

14 

16 

18 


KOOFS. 

V. — Example  of  Tie-beam  Roof  (large  span) 
VI. — Example  of  Open  Timber  Eoof  (Gothic)      . 
VII.— Example  of  Hip  Boof       . 
VIII. — Isometrical  Perspective 
IX. — Example  of  Framing  for  a  Hip  Roof     . 
X. — Isometrical  Perspective 
XI. — Example  of  Collar-beam  Roof     . 
XII. — Isometrical  Perspective 
XIII— XV.— Examples  of  Collar-beam  Roofs  . 

XVI. — Examples  of  Tie-beam  Roofs  (two  designs) 
XVIL— Examples  of  Open  Timber  Roof  (Gothic) 
XVIII.— Examples  of  King-post  and  Tie-beam  Roof 
XIX. — Examples  of  Queen-posts  and  Tie-beam  Roof 
XX. — Examples  of  Truss-beams 
XXI. — Examples  of  Spire 


22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34- 

36 

38  - 

44- 

46 

48- 

50 

52- 

54 


CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 

XXII.— Designs  for  Framing,  Bridgmg,  and  Trussing  Joists 
XXIII.— Designs  for  Bay  Window  .... 

XXIV.— Designs  for  Twin  Window      ..... 

XXV.— Designs  for  Sliding  Window  Shutters 

XXVI.— Designs  for  Sliding  Doors      ..... 
XXVII. — Designs  for  Folding  Doors  .... 

XXVIII.— Designs  for  Single  Doors       ..... 
XXIX.— Designs  for  Interior  Doors  .... 


56 
58 
60 
62 
64 
66 
68 
70 


(7) 


ILLLUSTRATIONS. 


FIVE  ORDERS,  (First  Series.) 


PLATE 

XXX. — Grecian  Doric  . 
XXXI. — Grecian  Ionic 
XXXII. — Roman  Doric    . 
XXXIII. — Modem  Doric 
XXXIV. — Roman  Ionic    . 
XXXV. — Roman  Corinthian 


THE  ORDERS  IN   PARTS,  (Second  Series.) 

XXXVI.-VIL— Tuscan  Order   .... 
XXXVIU.-IX.— Doric  Order  .... 

XL.-XLI. — Ionic  Order      .  .  .  . 

XLII.-III.— Corinthian  Order   .... 
XLIV.-V. — Composite  Order 

XLVI. — Caps  and  Bases  to  the  several  Pedestals 
XLVn. — Bases  of  the  several  Columns 
XLVin. — Architraves  of  the  Orders 
XLIX. — Imposts  of  Arches 
L.-LI. — Classic  Doors  and  Windows 
LII.-III. — Grecian  and  Roman  Mouldings 


72 
74 
7G 
78 
80 
82 


84 

88 

92 

96 

100 

104 

106 

108 

110 

112 

116 


PRACTICAL  GEOMETRY. 

LTV. — Problems    ....... 

LV.— The  Ellipse 

LVI. — The  Parabola  and  Hyperbola      .... 


122 
124 
126 


PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 


LVII. — Arches 
LVIII.-IX.-LX.— Groins 


128 
130 


JOINERY. 
LXI.-II.-III. — Geometrical  Stair-lines 
LXIV. — Moulded  Architrave 
LXV. — Designs  for  Door  and  Window  Architraves 
LXVI. — Designs  for  Moulded  Panelings   . 


136 

142 
144 
146 


CONSTRUCTIVE  ARCHITECTURE. 


BRIEF   HISTORICAL   NOTICE 


OF 


CELEBRATED    DOMES, 

ANCIENT    AND    MODERN. 

A  Dome  is  an  arched  or  vaulted  roof,  springing  from  a  polygonal,  circular,  or  ellij^tic 
plan;  presenting  a  convex  surface  on  the  outside  or  a  concavity  within,  so  as  that 
every  horizontal  section  may  be  of  similar  figure  and  have  a  common  vertical  axis. 
According  to  the  plan  from  which  they  spring,  domes  are  either  circular,  elliptical,  or 
polygonal;  of  these  the  circular  may  be  spherical,  sjiheroidal,  ellipsoidal,  hyperboloidal, 
paraboloidal,  etc.  The  word  dome  is  applied  to  the  external  part  of  the  spherical  or 
polygonal  roof,  and  cupola  to  the  internal.  But  the  terms  are  frequently  used  synony- 
mously, although  perhaps  incorrectly.  Such  as  rise  higher  than  the  radius  of  the  base 
are  denominated  surmounted  domes;  those  that  are  of  a  less  height  than  the  radius 
are  called  diminished  or  surhased;  and  such  as  have  circular  bases  are  termed  cupolas. 

The  remains  of  ancient  domes  are  generally  spherical  in  their  form.  Ruins  of 
numerous  ones  still  exist  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome  and  Naples.  They  were 
frequently  used  .among  the  Romans,  after  the  accession  of  Augustus,  in  whose  reign  the 
use  of  the  arch,  and  consequently  of  domes,  became  common.  The  arch  indeed  is 
of  Grecian  origin,  though  in  all  the  ancient  edifices  of  that  country  we  do  not  meet 

B  (9) 


10  CONSTRUCTIVE     ARCHITECTURE. 

with  a  single  instance  of  a  built  dome;  that  which  covers  the  monument  of  Lysicrates, 
being  only  a  single  stone,  can  be  looked  upon  but  as  a  lintel;  and  the  invention  of 
this  species  of  vault  seems  justly  attributed  to  the  Komans  or  Etrurians. 

Principal  among  the  ruins  of  domes  in  and  about  Rome,  are  those  of  the  temples 
of  Bacchus,  Vesta,  Romulus,  Hercules,  Cybele,  Neptune,  and  Venus.  The  oldest  and 
most  magnificent  is  that  of  the  Pantheon,  built  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  It  is  still 
entire,  and  consists  of  a  hemispherical  concavity,  enriched  with  coffers,  and  terminat- 
ing in  an  aperture  called  the  eye.  The  exterior  rises  from  several  degrees,  in  a 
sloping  direction,  nearly  tangent  to  the  several  internal  quoins,  and  presenting  to  the 
spectator  the  truncated  segment  of  a  sphere  considerably  less  than  a  hemisphere. 

The  dome  of  the  temple  of  Bacchus  is  also  internally  hemispherical,  though 
without  coffers.  Externally  it  is  now  covered  with  a  common  roof,  which  may  have 
been  the  original  form;  a  similar  roof  is  also  to  be  seen  over  the  dome  of  the  temple 
of  Jupiter,  in  the  Palace   of  Diocletian,  at  Spolatro. 

The  dome  of  Santa  Sophia,  at  Constantinople,  built  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  is 
the  most  remarkable  constructed  after  those  of  the  Romans,  and  ranks  next  to  the 
Pantheon  in  point  of  antiquity.  Anthemius  of  Tralles,  and  Isidorus  of  Miletus,  were 
the  architects.  Anthemius  had  promised  to  raise  a  dome  over  this  edifice,  whose 
magnitude  should  eclipse  the  magnificence  of  the  Roman  Pantheon.  With  this  view 
he  erected  four  pillars,  at  the  distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen  feet  from  each 
other,  and  filled  up  the  angular  spaces  between  the  archi-vaults  till  he  had  gradu- 
ally shaped  them  into  a  complete  circle,  at  the  level  of  the  extradoses  of  the  arches. 
On  the  ring  thus  formed  the  dome  was  raised,  being  the  first  ever  built  on  pendentives. 
Notwithstanding  the  precautions  taken  by  the  architect  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the 
arches,  by  walls  and  abutting  half  domes,  the  superstructure  gave  way  toward  the  east, 
and  fell  at  the  end  of  a  few  months,  taking  with  it  the  half  dome  on  that  side.  After 
the  death  of  Anthemius,  Isidorus  strengthened  the  eastern  pillars  by  filling  up  cer- 
tain voids  left  by  his  predecessor;  but  they  still  proved  too  weak  for  the  support  of 
so  great  a  load,  and  when  the  dome  was  turned  upon  them  again  gave  way  before 
the  work  was  completed.  To  counteract  this  thrust  on  the  east,  Isidorus  now  built 
strong  pillared  buttresses  against  the  eastern  wall  of  a  square  cloister  that  ran  round 
the  building,  from  which  he  threw  flying  buttresses  over  the  void,  and  raised  the  dome 
a  third  time,  but  with  very  little  success;  for  though  every  precaution  was  taken  to 
lessen  its  weight,  by  using  light  materials  and  reducing  its  thickness,  the  arches  were 


CELEBRATED    DOMES.  H 

I 
SO  much  fractured  that  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  filling  up  the  large  arcades  on 

the  north  and  south  sides  with  arches  of  less  dimensions,  in  three  stories. 

These  circumstances  are  mentioned  to  show  that  the  architects  of  the  age  to  which 
this  building  is  referred,  were  not  so  well  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  dome-vaulting 
.as  those  of  more  modern  date;  for  the  latter  would  probably  have  hooped  or  chained 
such  a  dome  immediately  over  the  arches  and  pendentives,  so  as  to  confine  its  pressure 
to  a  perpendicular  thrust,  or  nearly  so,  as  was  done  by  Michael  Angelo  in  the  erection 
of  the  far  more  ponderous  dome  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome;  and  still  more  recently  by 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  in  the  cupola  of  St.  Paul's,  at  London.  The  present  dome, 
however,  of  Santa  Sophia,  was  reconstructed  by  the  nephew  of  Isidorus.  It  rests  on 
the  square  formed  at  the  intersection  of  the  arras  of  the  Greek  cross,  and  is  sup- 
ported by  corbellings  placed  in  the  angles  of  the  square.  The  lower  part  of  the 
dome  has  a  row  of  windows  adorned  with  columns  on  the  exterior,  and  the  top  is 
surmounted  by  a  lantern,  on  which  is  a  cross. 

The  dome  of  St.  Mark's,  at  Venice,  erected  about  the  year  973,  and  that  of  the 
cathedral,  at  Pisa,  built  early  in  the  eleventh  century,  are  both  similar  in  plan  to  the 
preceding. 

The  dome  of  San  Vitale,  at  Ravenna,  is  of  very  curious  construction.  The  plan 
of  the  lower  part  is  that  of  an  octagon,  supported  by  eight  piers  at  the  angle  of  the 
dome.  Above,  the  wall  sustains  a  semi-spherical  dome;  the  plan  being  a  circle  within 
an  octagon. 

In  1298,  the  Cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  del  Foire  was  begun  at  Pisa,  by  the  cele- 
brated Arnolfo  Lusii;  he  died  two  years  after.  No  architect  could  be  found  to  exe- 
cute the  dome  upon  the  vast  plan  its  projector  had  designed;  it  consequently  remained 
unfinished  for  one  hundred  and  twenty  years,  when,  in  a  professional  convocation, 
Philip  Brunelleschi  was  permitted  to  attempt  its  completion.  Notwithstanding  the 
opposition  and  the  sarcasms  of  his  contemporaries,  who  held  his  scheme  to  be  imprac- 
ticable, he  carried  on  the  building,  and  completed  the  cupola  in  a  manner  worthy  pf 
his  great  reputation.  This  dome,  which  is  octangular  and  of  great  elevation,  is  formed 
of  two  vaults,  with  a  vacancy  between  them,  and  is  supported  merely  by  the  springing 
wall,  without  the  aid  of  buttresses,  though  its  dimensions  exceed  those  of  all  the 
ancient  Roman  domes,  with  the  single  exception  of  St.  Peter's. 

The  cathedral  church  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome — the  largest  temple  ever  built — was 
begun  by  Bramante  in  1513,  and  carried  on  successively  by  Raphael,  San  Gallo,  and 


PLATE    I. 

Is  a  perspective  view,  sliowing  the  interior  of  dome,  in  connection  with  a  design  for  a  large 
apartment  or  hall,  intended  to  convey  in  some  sort  an  illustration  of  the  purposes  to  which  a 
dome  of  this  description  may  be  more  particularly  applied.  First,  we  shall  briefly  notice  a  few 
of  the  structures  in  which  the  use  of  this  peculiar  form  of  covering  is  most  desirable  and  appro- 
priate, and  then  proceed  to  give  such  simple  and  concise  explanations  of  the  succeeding  plates  as 
will  serve  to  illustrate  the  design  and  give  to  the  intelligent  mechanic  a  clear  idea  of  the  intended 
mode  of  construction. 

We  have  elsewhere  referred  to  domes  as  more  exclusively  applied  to  Pagan  temples,  at  their 
first  origin,  and  afterwards  by  the  great  masters  of  the  middle  and  succeeding  ages  in  the  erection 
of  Christian  churches.  But  the  design  here  introduced  is  intended  more  particularly  for  such 
structures  as  the  increasing  wants  of  modern  civilization  render  necessary. 

It  may  be  described  as  hemispherical,  and  would  form  an  attractive  feature  in  designs  intended 
for  secular  uses.  In  buildings  connected  with  the  administration  of  the  aflfairs  of  government, 
whether  judicial  or  legislative;  in  those  intended  for  post-office  purposes,  or  the  receipt  of  customs; 
in  civic  halls,  in  which  in  crowded  communities  at  least  one  noble  apartment  should  be  reserved  for 
the  use  of  the  people  and  occasions  of  public  ceremonial;  and  in  the  great  marts  of  commerce, 
amid  the  hum  of  business,  it  would  form  a  fitting  apex  to  the  Exchange,  "where  merchants  most 
do  congregate." 

We  might  also  instance  colleges  and  academies  for  literary,  scientific,  or  artistic  purposes,  and 
a  variety  of  similar  institutions,  in  which  its  introduction  would  be  useful,  ornamental,  and  appro- 
priate. 

(12) 


CELEBRATED    DOMES.  13 

Michael  Angelo,  the  latter  of  whom  designed  the  dome  as  it  now  appears.  It  is 
impossible,  in  limits  like  the  present,  to  give  more  than  a  very  brief  and  restricted 
notice  of  the  characteristic  features  of  this  magnificent  effort  of  genius.  The  dome, 
which  is  double,  is  circular  on  the  plan.  The  internal  dome  is  constructed  on  double 
consoles,  instead  of  corbellings.  The  double  consoles  are  crowned  with  a  small  cor- 
nice, forming  an  impost  for  eight  arches,  from  the  upper  part  of  which  springs  the 
dome;    on  the  top  is  a  lantern  light,  which   is   not  apparent  externally. 

Up  to  this  time  domes  had  been  constructed  on  walls  and  corbellings;  but  in  St. 
Peter's  a  new  plan  was  adopted.  The  dome  stands  upon  four  piers.  From  the  arches 
spring  the  corbellings,  which  are  finished  by  an  entablature.  Upon  this  entablature  is  a 
plinth.  The  plinth  is  externally  an  octagon,  and  internally  a  circle.  The  external 
diameter  of  the  octagon  is  192  feet  9  inches,  and  the  internal  circle  134  feet  8J  inches. 
On  the  plinth  is  a  circular  stylobate,  above  which  is  placed  the  drum  of  the  dome.  The 
construction  is  formed  of  rubble  and  fragments  of  brick.  The  interior  is  formed 
with  bricks  stuccoed.  Externally  the  work  is  faced  with  thin  slabs  of  travestine 
stone.  The  drum  is  pierced  with  sixteen  windows.  The  walls  are  strengthened  on 
the  outside,  between  the  windows,  with  sixteen  buttresses.  When  the  base  of  the 
drum  had  been  built  to  the  height  of  the  entablature  of  the  dome,  Michael  Angelo 
died;  but  some  time  before  his  death  he  had  caused  a  model  to  be  made,  to  which 
he  added  drawings  and  instructions.  After  his  death,  Pirro  Ligorio  and  Vignola  were 
appointed  the  architects.  Giacomo  della  Porta,  the  pupil  of  Vignola,  followed  his 
master  as  architect;  but  although  the  designs  of  Michael  Angelo  were  strictly  fol- 
lowed, the  dome  itself  was  constructed  under  the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V.  Sixtus 
gave  Giacomo,  as  a  colleague,  Domeuico  Fontana,  by  whom  the  dome  was  constructed. 

On  the  construction  of  Michael  Angelo,  a  circular  attic  was  first  formed.  This 
attic  is  strengthened  externally  by  sixteen  projections,  placed  over  the  buttresses  of 
the  dome;  on  the  attic  rises  the  double  dome,  the  internal  diameter  of  which  at  the 
base  is  138  feet  5  inches.  The  curve  externally  is  an  arc  of  a  circle,  whose  radius 
is  about  84  feet.  At  the  height  of  27  feet  8  inches  from  the  attic  the  dome  is 
solid.  At  the  base  the  thickness  is  9  feet  7  inches.  The  circular  space  which 
divides  the  two  domes  is  3  feet  2i  inches  wide;  and  the  height  from  the  attic  to 
the  opening  of  the  lantern  is  83  feet  10  inches.  The  external  dome  is  pierced  with 
three  rows  of  small  windows,  and  is  joined  to  the  internal  by  sixteen  walls  or  spurs, 
diminishing  in  thickness  as  they  ascend  to  the  lantern.      The  base  of  the  lantern  is 


PLATE    11. 

Is  double.  Fig.  1  represents  the  transverse  section,  showing  a  portion  of  the  roof  over  pedi- 
ments, and  the  internal  finish  of  the  dome  and  tambour.  Fig.  2  is  the  finished  plan  of  the  above, 
showing  also  the  plan  of  soffct  of  segmental  arch.  It  will  be  seen  that  it  is  proposed  to  use  wood 
in  the  entire  framing  and  construction. 

The  cheapness  of  timber,  and  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  procured  in  this  country,  as 
well  its  lightness  and  its  adaptation,  owing  to  the  comparative  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  render 
it  a  most  facile  and  useful  material  in  constructions  of  this  character,  so  that  where  economy  is 
desirable  light  and  graceful  forms  may  be  put  up  over  even  comparatively  small  structures. 

The  internal  finish  is  intended  to  be  of  plaster,  laid  oS"  in  sunk  panels  with  enriched  mould- 
ings, with  a  bold  and  handsome  cornice  running  around  the  rim,  just  above  the  apex  of  segmental 
arch.  The  middle  row  of  panels  should  have  alternate  perforations,  filled  in  with  glass,  which 
might  be  stained,  if  preferred. 

The  tambour  is  intended  to  be  finished  with  an  ornamental  balustrade  running  around  an  aper- 
ture of  considerable  diameter,  technically  called  the  eye,  just  above  the  point  of  its  separation  from 
the  dome.  The  ceiling  is  coved  with  sunk  panels,  having  similar  enrichments  to  those  below, 
and  finished  with  an  appropriate  cornice.  The  circumference  is  filled  with  eight  circular  windows, 
which  are  designed  to  assist  in  lighting  the  hall  through  the  aperture  before  mentioned. 

(U) 


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CELEBRATED     DOMES.  15 

arched,  and  pierced  with  small  windows.  Above  the  two  domes  is  a  circular  plat- 
form, surrounded  with  an  iron  gallery.  In  the  centre  rises  the  lantern  on  a  stylo- 
bate,  broken  into  sixteen  parts,  forming  projecting  pedestals,  on  which  are  buttresses 
decorated  externally  with  coupled  Ionic  columns,  and  having  the  space  between  filled 
with  arched  openings  which  give  light  to  the  lantern.  The  external  diameter  of 
the  lantern  is  39  feet;  the  height  from  the  platform  to  the  top  of  the  cross  89  feet 
7i  inches;  and  the  whole  height,  from  the  external  plinth  of  the  dome  to  the  cross, 
263  feet.  The  total  height  internally,  to  the  top  of  the  dome  of  the  lantern,  is 
387  feet. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  the  work  of  the  great  Wren,  was  begun  in  1675, 
and  finished  in  1710.  The  dome  is  placed  over  the  intersection  of  the  four  naves. 
The  ground  plan  is  a  regular  octagon,  four  of  the  sides  being  formed  by  the  four 
great  arches  of  the  naves,  the  other  four  by  false  arches  of  the  same  size.  By  this 
means  eight  supports  are  obtained  instead  of  four,  and  the  corbellings  do  not  project 
too  much  as  in  similar  constructions.  They  gather  in  a  circle  and  are  surmounted 
by  a  complete  entablature,  decorated  with  consoles.  The  cornice  is  98  feet  91  inches 
from  the  pavement.  The  height  of  the  drum  is  62  feet  6^  inches  to  the  springing 
of  the  internal  dome.  The  interior  of  the  drum  is  decorated  with  a  continuous 
stylobate,  on  which  is  an.  order  of  Corinthian  pilasters.  The  thirty-two  spaces  be- 
tween these  are  filled  with  twenty-four  windows  and  eight  niches.  The  drum  is 
decorated  externally  with  an  order  of  thirty-two  Corinthian  columns,  united  to  the 
wall  by  eight  sohd  constructions  in  masonry.  Above  the  internal  order  of  the  drum 
rises  the  interior  dome,  the  diameter  of  which  at  the  springing  is  102  feet  21  inches 
by  51  feet  in  height.  The  external  dome  is  constructed  of  wood,  covered  with  lead 
and  decorated  with  projecting  ribs,  forming  panels  curved  at  the  ends.  This  dome 
terminates  with  a  finishing  which  joins  the  base  of  the  lantern,  which  is  supported 
on  a  conical  tower  terminated  by  a  spherical  dome. 

About  the  same  time  that  Wren  built  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  Hardouin  Man- 
sard, a  French  architect,  constructed  the  dome  of  the  Invalides,  at  Paris.  The  plan 
of  this  dome  is  a  square,  on  which  is  inscribed  a  Greek  cross;  in  the  angles  of  the 
square  there  are  four  chapels.  The  dome,  which  is  double,  rises  in  the  centre  of 
the  cross  from  a  springing  which  is  common  to  both.  The  base  supporting  it  is  an 
octagonal  figure.  The  internal  dome,  constructed  with  masonry,  is  spherical.  The 
outer  dome  is  spheroidal,  constructed  of  stone  at  the  base  and  brick  above.       It  is 


PLATE    III 

Is  a  transverse  section  showing  the  timbers.  It  will  be  unnecessary  to  give  a  description  of 
this  plate,  as  the  next  will  more  fully  elucidate  the  plan  of  construction.  Of  the  two  diagrams, 
the  larger  represents  the  plan  of  the  tambour  at  its  base;  the  lesser  that  of  the  ribs  and  apex. 

(10) 


piuaaa 


5  aTti^  Slo  ail  At  cK* 


3.os«TLtkaTs  XrOi  Tliil* 


CELEBRATED     DOMES.  17 

framed  of  wood  and  covered  with  lead,  like  St.  Paul's.  The  total  height  to  the  top 
of  the  ci'oss  which  surmounts  the  lantern  is  330  feet. 

The  modern  Pantheon,  at  Paris,  formerly  the  Church  of  St.  Genevicive,  was  built 
by  Soufflot;  a  distinguished  architect,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  The  dome,  which 
is  lofty,  is  sustained  by  four  pillars,  arched  over  the  cross  parts.  It  is  similar  in 
some  respects  to  St.  Paul's. 

Of  wooden  domes,  that  of  the  Halle  du  Bled,  also  at  Paris,  is  an  excellent  ex- 
ample, being  more  than  200  feet  in  diameter  and  only  one  foot  in  thickness. 

The  Chevalier  de  Montferrand  has  lately  employed  a  new  material  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  dome  of  the  Church  of  St.  Isaac,  at  St.  Petersburg.  A  brief  account 
of  the  construction  may  be  interesting.  A  series  of  twenty-four  cast-iron  ribs,  rest- 
ing on  a  plate  of  similar  material  7  feet  wide,  runs  quite  round  the  circumference  of 
the  top  of  the  cornice  of  the  colonnade,  which  girds  the  drum.  All  these  ribs  are 
attached  at  their  heads  to  a  horizontal  plate  or  curb,  6  feet  3  inches  wide,  which  fol- 
lows the  periphery  of  the  dome.  At  this  height  the  rib  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
one  of  which,  12  feet  6  inches  deep,  follows  the  sweep  of  the  inner  dome  for  a 
height  of  20  feet,  and  is  bolted  at  its  summit  to  a  perforated  cylinder  of  cast-iron 
21  feet  in  diameter  and  7  feet  high,  which  forms  the  centre  aperture  at  the  summit 
of  the  inner  dome.  The  other  part  follows  the  line  of  an  intermediate  cone,  with 
a  catenary  outline,  similar  to  the  one  in  St.  Paul's.  It  is  also  21  feet  long,  2  feet 
6  inches  deep,  with  perforations  to  render  it  lighter.  The  conical  ribs  have  then 
another  length  of  21  feet,  and  are  again  connected  by  another  plate,  from  which 
spring  the  circular  ribs,  about  16  feet  long,  forming  a  dome  to  the  intermediate  cone, 
with  their  heads  also  bolted  to  a  cylinder  8  feet  6  inches  in  diameter  and  18  inches 
high.  The  upper  portions  of  these  ribs  diverge  at  the  top,  so  as  to  form  a  base  for  the 
octagonal  cupolino,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  cast>-iron  story  posts,  ribs,  and  bracket- 
ings,  including  the  dome,  with  its  ball  and  cross  at  the  apex,  which  last  are  of  brass  gilt. 
The  spaces  between  the  ribs  are  filled  in  with  pots,  rendered  on  their  surfaces  with 
plaster  and  painted  with  sacred  subjects.  The  outer  dome  is  covered  externally  with 
bronze  gilt.  The  whole  entablature  and  flat,  and  the  balustrade  over  the  peristyle 
of  the  drum  of  the  cupola  likewise  consist  of  cast  and  wrought-iron  framing,  faced 
with  plates  of  copper,  which  form  the  profiles  and  mouldings.  The  twenty-four 
pedestals  of  this  balustrade  carry  winged  angels  of  bronze,  above  9  feet  high,  each 
of  a  single  casting.      The  roofing  is  wholly  of  iron,  covered  with  copper.      The  skele- 

c 


PLATE    IV. 

Is  the  plan.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  base  is  a  square,  having  two  of  its  sides  formed  of 
the  walls  and  pilasters;  the  other  two  being  framed  of  trussed  girders,  placed  immediately  over  the 
crown  of  the  arches,  of  which  they  also  form  the  support.  Within  the  square,  struts  are  placed 
diagonally  at  the  four  corners,  so  as  to  form  the  angles  of  a  perfect  octagon.  These  angle-struts 
are  also  trussed,  and  securely  bolted  to  the  tie-beams  or  girders  at  one  end,  having  their  opposite 
extremities  resting  upon  the  walls.  Over  these  is  placed  a  horizontal  course  of  look-out  joists, 
the  ends  of  which  converge  toward  the  centre,  and  arc  cut  off  at  equidistant  lengths  therefrom, 
thereby  forming  the  circle  upon  which  the  rim  or  base  of  the  dome  is  supported.  From  this  rim 
spring  all  the  ribs  of  the  superstructure.  These  ribs  have  a  strut  or  foot-brace  securely  toed  into 
each,  as  also  into  the  corresponding  joist  beneath.  By  these  means  the  look-out  joists  are  relieved 
of  the  greater  portion  of  the  weight,  as  it  is  necessarily  distributed  so  as  to  cause  the  largest  pro- 
portion to  lean  upon  the  walls  and  trussed  beams.  The  pendentives  are  worked  up  from  the 
spring  of  the  lower  arches  to  the  base  or  rim,  from  which  point  starts  the  regular  formation  of  the 
dome. 

The  lower  rim  of  a  dome  of  this  diameter  and  construction  can  be  most  readily  formed  of 
hree  thicknesses  of  two-inch  plank,  cut  in  sections  of  the  circle  and  bolted  together  with  overlap- 
ping joints.  The  upper  rim  may  be  similarly  constructed,  and  also  the  ribs.  For  these  latter, 
however,  two  thicknesses  will  suffice.  These  should  be  put  together  in  pairs,  each  pair  forming 
a  stile. 

The  cross-ties  are  to  be  placed  so  as  to  leave  openings  for  the  panels.  Two  inches  will  be  a 
sufficient  thickness  for  these  in  a  dome  of  this  dimension.  Cleats  can  be  nailed  on  for  the  sink- 
ing of  the  panelling. 

Fig.  1,  on  Plate  IV.,  shows  the  elevation  of  the  girders  A  A. 

Fig.  2.  The  ground  plan;  one  portion  showing  the  connection  of  the  angle  pieces  with  their 
bearings,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  trussed.  The  other  half  shows  all  the  timbers  of  the 
dome  in  their  relative  positions. 

We  may  add,  in  conclusion,  that  in  a  dome  of  this  description  the  use  of  fresco  painting  and 
gilding,  with  other  modes  of  decorative  embellishment,  can  be  introduced  with  admirable  effect,  both 
upon  the  walls  and  ceiling.  If  to  these  were  added  the  laying  of  the  floor  with  encaustic  tiles, 
the  coup  d'ooil  would  be  still  further  heightened,  and  a  beautiful  effect  produced.  In  some  of  the 
European  domes  which  the  author  has  seen,  as  that  of  the  Invalides,  at  Paris,  the  rays  of  light 
streaming  from  above,  and  equally  distributed  throughout  the  interior,  blend  the  variegated  colors 
in  one  harmonious  whole,  heightening  their  brilliancy,  and  flooding  over  the  floor  and  walls  such 
rich  and  golden  hues  as  almost  insensibly  to  remind  one  of  the  legendary  visions  of  fairy-land. 


pa.,  ^y 


IHIHIHIHli^i^-  -(^-^  r^HHIHi^HlHHiMHMrTT 

lillUIUll-;!!-!;  , A,^    L^i  Ul  ^i  ^  t_li  Uhi  t-^  II— I  M IM  11-^ 


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Kosen6ial&  Xitk  Phii« 


CELEBRATED     DOMES.  19 

ton  of  the  entablature  of  the  peristyle  is  of  cast  and  wrought  iron,  resting  on  and 
affixed  to  the  columns  by  wrought-iron  pins  let  into  the  shafts  to  a  considerable  depth. 
The  frame  work  is  also  let  into  the  cylindrical  wall  of  the  dome,  and  securely  affixed 
to  templates.  The  cornice  rests  on  cast-iron  corbels,  and  the  caissons  and  rosettes 
also  rest  on  cast-iron  girders.  The  total  weight  of  metals  of  all  descriptions  em- 
ployed in  this  great  work,  amounts  to  the  enormous  quantity  of  nearly  19G7  tons. 
The  careful  skill  with  which  the  architect  has  fulfilled  his  part,  and  the  fine  taste 
and  discrimination  which  he  has  displayed  in  the  decorative  embellishment  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Isaac's,  render  it  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  striking  edifices  of  the 
century. 

Square  turrets,  surmounted  with  domes,  bearing  resemblance  to  a  bell  in  their 
outhne,  were  frequently  used  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  her  successor,  the  First 
James. 

Domes  are  sometimes  made  convex  below  and  concave  above,  the  former  taking 
up  a  much  greater  proportion  of  the  side  than  the  latter;  these  may  be  variously 
denominated  Moresque,  Turkish,  or  Hindoo. 

All  the  ancient  Roman  domes  are,  on  the  convex  side,  a  much  less  portion  of 
a  sphere  than  a  hemisphere;  but  these,  from  the  completion  of  the  Church  of  Santa 
Sophia  to  the  finishing  of  St.  Paul's  cupola,  are  of  the  surmounted  kind,  approach- 
ing gradually  nearer  and  nearer  to  the  proportion  of  those  beautiful  spires  which 
were  so  universally  adopted  and  admired  in  the  middle  ages.  In  the  dome  of  St. 
Paul's,  the  sides  of  the  section  are  struck  from  centres  in  the  base  line,  which,  if 
continued,  would  meet  in  an  angle  in  the  axis  of  the  dome.  Since  the  revival  of 
Grecian  architecture,  the  contour  of  the  old  Roman  dome  has  also  been  revived,  espe- 
cially in  cases  where  other  parts  of  the  building  are  decorated  with  any  of  the  orders. 
Exterior  domes  should  never  be  applied  to  buildings  in  the  pointed  style  of  archi- 
tecture. 

The  following  are  the  admeasurements  of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  domes  of 
Europe : — 


20  CONSTRUCTIVE    ARCHITECTURE. 

TABLE  OF  ADMEASUREMENTS  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MOST  CELEBRATED  DOMES  OF  EUROPE. 

DOMES  OF  ANTIQUITY. 

Feet  in  Height  from 

diameter  externally,      the  ground  line. 

Dome  of  the  Pantheon 142  143 

"  Jlincrva  ^leilica,  at  llorac 78  9T 

Baths  of  Caracalla 112  116 

"  Baths  of  Diocletian 74  83 

Temple  of  Diana 98  78 

"         Proserpine  and  "Venus 87  77 

DOMES  COMPARATIVELY  MODERN. 

Santa  Sophia,  at  Constantinople 115  201 

Mosque  of  Achraet 92  120 

San  Vitale,  at  Rarenna 55  91 

FROM    THE    TIME   OF   BRUNELLESCHI. 

Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  at  Florence 139  310 

The  Chapel  of  the  Medici 91  199 

St.  Peter's,  at  Rome 139  330 

Chapel  of  the  Superga,  at  Turin 64  128 

"         Invalides,  at  Paris 80  173 

Val  de  Grace,  Paris 55  133 

Pantheon,  or  St.  Genevi6ve,  Paris 67  190 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London 112  215 


ON    THE 


PRINCIPLES  AND  CONSTRIJCTION  OF  ROOFS, 


WITH      A 


GENERAL  DEFINITION  OF   THE   TERMS  EMPLOYED. 


The  necessity  of  some  place  of  shelter  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  must 
have  been  experienced  bj''  mankind  in  the  very  earliest  stages  of  barbarism;  the 
origin,  therefore,  of  covered  habitations,  is  lost  in  the  remote  obscurity  of  time.  The 
first  shelter  of  the  savage  must  have  been  very  rude  indeed.  When  ready  formed 
abodes,  such  as  caverns,  or  the  hollows  of  trees,  failed  him,  it  is  probable  that  his 
untutored  ingenuity  devised  no  better  refuge  than  could  be  derived  from  the  boughs 
of  trees,  covered  with  moss  and  twigs,  or  the  rough  skins  of  animals. 

Did  our  limits  permit,  it  might  be  curious  to  trace  from  this  rude  origin  the 
gradual  development  of  a  perfect  roof,  till  from  this  Sylvan  abode  to  the  wigwam  of 
the  Red  Indian  or  the  more  finished  tenement  of  the  South  Sea  Islander,  we  arrived 
at  the  elaborate  constructions  of  later  and  more  enlightened  races. 

The  simplest  and  earliest  description  of  roof  was  doubtless  formed  by  two  rafters 
pitching  against  each  other;  but  the  objection,  that  the  rafters  had  a  tendency  to 
spread,  and  thrust  out  the  walls  on  which  they  rested,  must  soon  have  become  appa- 
rent. This  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  tie-beam,  which,  in  conjunction  with  the 
rafters,  gives  us  that  simple  form  of  roof  of  which  mention  is  made  in  the  earliest 
records,  and  which  is  still  in  general  use  among  us. 

The  ancient  Eastern  nations  had  their  roofs  quite  flat.  The  Greeks  appear  to 
have  been  the  first  who  made  them  with  a  declination  each  way,  from  the  middle  to 

(21) 


PLATE    V. 

• 

Fig.  1  is  a  design  for  a  roof  whose  span  may  extend  from  100  to  110  feet.  By  the  method 
here  shown,  the  tie-heam  is  suspended  by  iron  rods  instead  of  queen-posts.  Cast-iron  heads  are 
also  introduced  at  the  apex,  and  where  the  rafters  and  camber-beams  unite;  and  iron  shoes  are 
used  at  the  points  where  the  straining-sills  and  braces  butt.  In  this  example  the  tie-beam  has 
shoes  which  extend  from  the  heel  to  the  principal  truss-bolt  on  either  side,  and  are  bolted  to  the 
beam  through  pieces  of  hard  wood  two  inches  thick  by  six  inches  wide,  which  are  equally  notched 
into  both  at  regular  distances.  The  centre  of  the  tic-beam  is  trussed  by  pieces  springing  from 
the  foot  of  the  truss-bolts,  with  a  straining-sill  secured  to  the  upper  side.  The  camber-beam  is 
trussed  with  spui'-braces  and  straining-pieces,  and  is  suspended  from  the  principals  by  iron  rods. 
A  story  can  easily  be  fitted  up  in  a  roof  of  this  description,  if  required,  by  placing  joists  upon  the 
tie-beam  between  the  truss-bolts,  and  flooring  them  over.  In  a  span  of  100  feet  a  height  of  10 
feet  can  easily  be  procured  for  this  purpose,  between  the  tie  and  camber-beams.  By  reference  to 
the  plate  it  will  be  seen  that  the  purlins  are  intended  to  be  notched  into  the  principals,  and  the 
common-rafters  into  the  purlins.  The  heels  are  secured  by  stirrups,  in  addition  to  the  necessary 
bolts.  The  camber  in  the  tie-beam  should  be  5  inches  in  a  span  of  100  feet ;  that  in  the  camber- 
beam  should  be  2  inches;  all  the  connections  with  the  iron  heads  and  shoes  will  be  rule-jointed. 
Fig.  2  is  the  cast-iron  head  drawn  to  a  large  scale,  so  as  clearly  to  show  the  joints.  Fig.  3  is 
a  section  showing  the  tie-beam  with  the  shoe  beneath;  the  cast-iron  shoe;  the  straining-sill;  the 
brace;  and  the  butt  joint  of  the  truss  in  centre  of  beam.  Fig.  4  shows  the  heel  of  the  rafter 
and  the  mode  of  bolting  it  to  the  tie-beam;  the  position  of  the  iron  stirrup;  and  the  form  of 
construction  for  gutter.  Fig.  5  is  a  section  of  the  camber-beam,  showing  the  connection  of  the 
spur-brace  and  straining-sill.  Fig.  6  is  the  apex,  showing  the  iron  head  and  its  connection  with 
the  truss-rafters.  Fig.  7  is  a  portion  of  the  camber-beam,  showing  the  iron  head,  and  the  con- 
nection with  the  rafters  by  means  of  the  suspension-rod  and  braces.  Fig.  8  represents  a  part 
of  the  centre  of  the  tie-beam,  with  tlie  head  of  the  truss. 

TABLE  GIYING  DIMENSIONS   OF   TIMBERS. 


Tie-beam 10X16  inches. 

Upper  principal-rafters      .     .     .  10X14  " 
Lower        "            "....10X12 

Camber-beam 10  XH  " 

Tmss-rafter  above  do.  do.      .     .  10  v  14  " 

Spur-brace  to  do.  do 10-  12  " 

Straining-piece  to  do.  do.      .     .  10x10  " 

Straining-sill 8  X  10  " 

(22) 


Braces  to  straining-sill    ....  6x10  inches. 

Upper  braces G  X    6 

Shoe  beneath  tie-beam    .     .     .     .  8X10 

rnrlins 5X  10 

Common-rafters 3x5 

Look-out  joists 3  X  10 

Ceiling  joists 3X8 


i»u.o  \y 


Sar.i4-  Sloan.  Axcr. 


J-Lns^-.ati.aaE  tiih  Thil» 


PRINCIPLES    AND     CONSTRUCTION     OF    ROOFS.     •  23 

the  edges.  This  was  but  gentle,  the  height  from  the  ridge  to  the  level  of  the  wall 
not  exceeding  one-ninth  or  one-eighth  of  the  span,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  remains  of 
many  of  their  ancient  temples.  In  most  of  the  old  public  and  private  edifices  of 
Britain,  the  equilateral  triangle  seems  to  have  been  considered  the  standard,  till  the 
decline  of  what  is  termed  Gothic  architecture.  The  ridge  was  then  somewhat  low- 
ered; the  rafters  being  made  three-fourths  of  the  breadth  of  the  building.  This 
was  called  true  2)if<-h;  but  subsequently  the  designation  seems  to  have  been  applied 
to  the  sqttare.  The  heights  of  roofs  were  further  depressed  from  the  square  to  one- 
third,  and  from  that  to  the  fourth;  but  with  us  they  are  frequently  executed  much 
lower,  the  pitch  being  regulated  by  a  variety  of  causes. 

When  executed  with  judgment,  a  roof  is  one  of  the  principal  ties  of  a  building, 
as  it  binds  the  exterior  walls  to  the  interior,  and  to  the  partitions,  which  act  like 
strong  counterforts  against  them. 

Eoofs  are  of  various  forms,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  plan,  and  the  law  of 
the  horizontal  and  vertical  sections.  The  most  simple  form  is  that  which  has  only 
one  row  of  timbers,  arranged  in  an  inclined  plane,  which  throws  the  roof  entirely  to 
one  side.       This  is  called  a  sJied  roof,  or  Jean  to. 

The  best  form  for  a  rectangular  building  consists  of  two  rectangular  planes  of 
equal  breadth,  equally  inclined,  and  terminating  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  horizon. 
This  is  sometimes  called  a  pent  roof. 

Roofs  flat  on  the  top  are  said  to  be  trimcated.  These  are  frequently  employed 
with  a  view  to  diminish  the  height,  so  as  not  to  predominate  over  that  of  the  walls. 

When  all  the  four  sides  of  the  roof  are  formed  by  inclined  planes,  it  is  said  to 
be  hipjied,  and  is  therefore  called  a  UpiMd  roof;  the  inclined  ridge  sprmging  from  the 
angle  of  the  walls  being  called  the  Mix  Roofs  of  this  description  are  frequently 
truncated. 

Roofs  upon  circular  bases,  with  all  their  horizontal  sections  circular,  the  centres 
of  the  circles  being  in  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  base  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon,  are  called  revolved  roofs,  or  roofs  of  revolution. 

When  the  plan  of  the  roof  is  a  regular  polygon,  or  a  circle,  or  an  ellipsis,  the 
horizontal  sections  being  all  similar  to  the  base,  and  the  vertical  section  a  portion  of 
any  curve  convex  to  the  outside,  the  roof  is  called  a  dome. 

For  the  convenience  of  the  reader  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain  such  terms  as 
are  used  in  roof  construction,  by  way  of  definitions. 


PLATE    VI. 

Is  an  example  .  of  an  open  timber  roof,  in  that  later  form  of  the  Gothic  or  pointed  style 
termed  perpendicular;  a  style  which  has  of  late  years  come  into  rather  extensive  use  in  this 
country.  The  example  here  presented  is  of  such  construction  as  more  particularly  adapts  it  for 
roofs  of  large  buildings,  and  may  be  used  with  perfect  safety  in  cases  where  the  span  extends  from 
60  to  80  feet.  Fig.  1  shows  the  construction  across  the  entire  span,  one  half  of  which  exhibits 
the  naked  framing.  The  corresponding  half  is  displayed  in  a  finished  state,  with  its  mouldings, 
etc.,  all  of  which  are  planted  on  the  framing.  The  tracery  and  spandrels  are  also  formed  and 
filled  in,  separately  from  the  timbers.  The  roof  being  drawn  correctly  to  a  scale,  and  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  make  all  the  constructive  features  and  detail  perfectly  intelligible  to  an  ordinary 
mechanic,  but  little  further  need  be  added  by  way  of  description.  A  roof  of  such  considerable 
span,  having  no  tic-beam,  must  necessarily  have  two  collar-beams,  as  well  as  hammer-beams,  which 
are  a  mai'ked  peculiarity  of  the  style.  Of  the  tie-beams,  the  upper  is  slightly  tenoned  into  the 
principal-rafters;  the  lower,  to  make  it  perfectly  secure,  requires  straps  on  either  side  and  across 
the  back  of  the  rafter,  and  will  require  to  be  still  further  tightened  by  the  introduction  of  jibs 
and  keys.  The  upper  collar-beam  and  king-post  may  be  halved  together,  and  have  their  ends 
and  braces  tenoned  into  the  principal-rafters  and  pinned.  If  thought  necessary,  a  small  joint- 
bolt  may  be  used  in  each  of  the  latter.  The  form  and  framing  of  the  hammer-beams,  the  collar 
braces,  and  the  footing  of  the  rafters,  are  clearly  shown  and  explained  by  the  drawing.  Roofs 
of  this  description  are  usually  constructed  of  pine  timber,  having  the  various  mouldings,  span- 
drels, etc.,  finished  of  the  same  material,  and  grained  in  imitation  of  oak,  or  stained  and  varnished. 
In  this  design,  the  common-rafters  are  not  exposed.  They  are  intended  to  be  lined  on  the  lower 
side  with  narrow  worked  boards  with  beaded  joints.  For  these  yellow  pine  is  preferable.  By 
this  mode  of  finish  a  free  circulation  of  air  is  obtained  within  the  space  formed  by  the  sheathing 
for  the  roof  and  the  lining  of  the  ceiling.  Figs.  2  and  3  are  portions  of  the  roof  drawn  to  a 
large  scale,  so  as  more  clearly  to  show  the  form  of  the  detail  and  finish,  and  the  mode  of  con- 
struction. 

v 

TABLE   SHOWING  THE  DIMENSIONS   OF  THE  TIMBERS. 


A 

Principal-rafters 

.     .     10  X  14  inches. 

B 

Lower  collar-hcam  . 

..     10x14       " 

C 

Hammer-beam    .     . 

.     .     10X1(5       " 

D 

Hammer-brace    .     . 

.     .     10X10       " 

G 

Collar-brace       .     . 

.     .     10X10 

II 

Side-post .... 

..     10X12       " 

(24) 

E  Peiulent-post 

F  Uliper  uollar-bcam 

I  King-post      .     . 

K  K  Braces      .     .     . 

L  Ridge-piece   . 

M  Coiumou-rafters . 


10  X 

9  inches 

10  X 

fi 

( 

10  X 

8 

t 

10  X 

G 

i 

4X10 

t 

3X 

8 

I 

LKi/rj 


S  am^  SI  o  aj\  JVx  ch* 


:B.ofien.Oial'  sXitli  yXil*. 


PRINCIPLES    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    ROOFS.  25 

WaU-jyJates.  Pieces  of  timber  laid  on  the  walls,  in  order  to  distribute  the  pres- 
sure of  the  roof  equally,  and  to  bind  the  walls  together. 

Triisses.  Strong  frames  of  carpentry,  generally  of  a  triangular  form,  supporting 
the  covering.  They  are  disposed  at  equal  distances,  and  are  used  when  the  expansion 
of  the  walls  is  too  great  to  admit  of  common-rafters  alone,  which  would  be  in  danger 
of  being  bent  or  broken  by  the  weight  of  the  covering,  for  want  of  some  intermediate 
support. 

Tie.  Any  piece  of  timber  connected  at  its  extremities  to  two  others,  acted  upon 
by  opposite  pressures,  which  have  a  tendency  from  each  other. 

Straining-piece.  A  piece  of  timber  connected  at  its  extremities  to  two  others, 
acted  upon  by  opposite  pressures,  which  have  a  tendency  toward  each  other.  Hence, 
a  tie  acts  contrary  to  a  straining -piece.  A  flexible  substance  may  be  used  for  the 
former,  but  the  latter  must  always  be  inflexible,  being  in  a  state  of  compression. 

P)-incipal-rafters.  Two  pieces  of  timber  in  the  sides  of  a  truss,  supporting  a 
grated  frame  of  timber  work  over  them,  on  which  the  covering  rests. 

Purlins.       Horizontal  pieces  of  timber,  fixed  upon  the  principal-rafters. 

Tie-beam.  A  horizontal  piece  of  timber,  connected  to  two  oj)posite  principal- 
rafters.  It  answers  to  prevent  the  walls  from  being  pushed  outward  by  the  weight 
of  the  covering;  and  to  support  the  ceiling  of  the  rooms  below.  When  placed  above 
the  bottom  of  the  rafters  it  is  called  a  collar-beam. 

Commoii-rafters.  Pieces  of  timber  of  small  section,  placed  equidistantly  upon 
the  purlins,  and  parallel  to  the  principal-rafters.       They  sujjport  the  covering. 

Pole-plates.  Pieces  of  timber  resting  on  the  ends  of  the  tie-beams,  and  supporting 
the  lower  ends  of  the  common-rafters. 

King-post.  An  upright  piece  of  timber  in  the  middle  of  a  truss,  framed  at  the 
upper  end  into  the  principal -rafters,  and  at  the  lower  end  into  the  tie-beam;  this 
prevents  the  tie-beam  from  sinking  in  the  middle. 

Queen^posts.  Two  upright  pieces  of  timber  framed  below  into  the  tie-beam,  and 
above  into  the  principal -rafters,  placed  equidistantly  from  the  middle  of  the  truss,  or 
its  extremities. 

Struts.  Oblique  straining -pieces,  framed  below  into  the  king  or  queen-posts,  and 
above  into  the  principal -rafters,  which  are  supported  by  them;  or  sometimes  they 
have  their  upper  ends  framed  into  beams,  which  are  too  long  to  support  themselves 
without  bending.       They  are  often  called  braces. 

D 


PLATE    VII. 

Fig.  1  exhibits  a  hip-roof,  designed  to  cover  a  large  span.  The  angle  and  intermediate,  or 
cripple-rafters,  as  they  are  usually  termed,  are  sustained  by  a  truss  which  takes  its  bearing  cen- 
tral to  the  heel  and  the  principal-rafter.  In  this  design,  the  queen-posts  are  intended  to  be  of 
hard  wood.  They  are  secured  to  the  tic-beam  with  iron  stirrups,  which  are  made  fast  with  keys 
and  jibs.  The  camber-beam  is  sustained  by  an  iron  bolt,  which  passes  through  a  cast-iron  head 
inserted  between  the  upper  rafters  at  the  ape.x.  The  tie-beam  is  suspended  to  the  truss-beam, 
which  supports  the  hip  and  its  appendages,  by  iron  bolts  proceeding  from  cast  heads  between  the 
camber-beam  and  trussed-rafter.  In  addition  to  this,  the  camber-beam  is  braced  by  three  pieces 
on  each  side  of  the  centre,  which  butt  against  a  straining-piece.  When  well  constructed,  and 
thoroughly  braced  and  bolted  in  the  manner  described,  this  roof  is  perfectly  adequate  to  sustain 
itself  with  safety  over  a  span  extending  from  70  to  85  feet.  Fig.  2  is  the  elevation  of  the  sup- 
porting beam  or  truss.  Fig.  3  shows  the  ends  of  the  upper  rafters  at  their  junction  with  the 
iron  head.  Fig.  4  is  a  section  showing  the  connection  of  the  tie-beam  with  the  queen-post,  the 
iron  stiiTup,  and  the  foot  of  brace.  It  will  be  seen  that  provision  is  made  for  flattening  the 
upper  section  of  this  roof,  lest  the  carrying  out  of  the  regular  pitch  line  should  give  to  it  an 
objectionable  height.  The  purlins  are  notched  into  the  principals  as  on  Plate  V.  The  camber 
in  the  tie-beam  should  be  at  least  three  inches.  It  should  also  be  cleated  with  1X3  inch  cleats, 
over  which  the  joists  should  be  notched;  and  to  prevent  cracks  in  the  plastering,  the  whole  should 
be  cross  lathed  with  1X2  inch  laths,  placed  16  inches  apart  from  the  centres.  By  this  means 
the  plastering  will  be  preserved  from  the  cracks  so  frequently  occasioned  by  the  shrinkage  of  the 
timbers.  By  reference  to  the  succeeding  plate  will  be  seen  an  isometrical  view,  which  more 
intelligibly  displays  the  disposition  of  the  several  timbers,  showing  a  portion  of  the  roof  ready 
framed  for  the  reception  of  the  common-rafters. 

(26) 


[p[Lo\yaa 


j  ajo.'r  'z,  loan.  AfCtV^ 


PRINCIPLES    AND     CONSTRUCTION    OF     ROOFS.  27 

Puncheons.  Short  transverse  pieces  of  timber,  fixed  between  two  others  for  sup- 
porting them  equally,  so  that  when  any  force  operates  on  the  one,  the  other  resists 
it  equally.       These  are  sometimes  called  studs. 

Straining-heam.  A  piece  of  timber  placed  between  two  queen-posts  at  the  upper 
ends,  in  order  to  withstand  the  thrust  of  the  principal-rafters. 

Straining-sill.  A  piece  of  timber  placed  at  the  bottom  of  two  queen-posts,  upon 
the  tie-beam,  in  order  to  withstand  the  force  of  the  braces,  which  are  acted  upon  by 
the  weight  of  the  covering. 

Camber-heams.  Horizontal  pieces  of  timber,  made,  on  the  upper  edge,  sloping 
from  the  middle  toward  each  end,  in  an  obtuse  angle,  for  discharging  the  water.  They 
are  placed  above  the  straining-beam,  in  a  truncated  roof,  for  fixing  the  boarding  on 
which  the  lead  is  laid. 

Auxiliary-rafters.  Pieces  of  timber  framed  in  the  same  vertical  plane  with  the 
principal -rafters,  under  and  parallel  to  them,  for  giving  additional  support,  when 
I'equired.       They  are  sometimes  called  principal-braces,  and   sometimes  cushion-rafters. 

Joggles.  The  joints  at  the  meeting  of  struts  with  king-posts,  queen-posts,  or  prin- 
cipal-rafters, etc.;  the  best  form  is  that  which  is  at  right-angles  to  the  struts. 

Cogging.  The  particular  manner  of  fixing  the  tie-beams  to  the  wall-plates.  One 
method  is  by  dove-tailing,  the  other  is  by  notching  the  under  side  of  the  tie-beam,  and 
cutting  the  wall-plate  in  a  reverse  form  to  fit  it.  This  last  method  is  the  most  pre- 
ferable. 

Ridge-tree.  A  piece  of  timber  fixed  in  the  vertex  of  a  roof,  where  the  common- 
rafters  meet  on  each  side  of  it.      The  upper  edge  is  higher  than  the  rafters. 

Straps.  Thin  pieces  of  iron  running  across  the  junction  of  two  or  more  parts 
of  a  truss,  or  frame  of  carpentry,  branching  out  from  the  intersection  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  several  pieces,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  them  to  each  other.  They 
ought  always  to  be  double,  viz.,  one  strap  on  each  side,  and  their  ends  strongly  bolted 
to  each  of  the  pieces. 

To  these  may  be  added  the  Cornice;  in  early  roofs  the  inner  wall-plate,  which 
was  sometimes  moulded;  afterwards  this  feature  was  greatly  enlarged  and  enriched, 
and  became  of  main  importance  in  the  roofs. 

Eammer-beam.  Principally  apphed  in  Gothic  architecture.  A  horizontal  piece 
of  timber  lying  on  the  wall-plates,  at  right-angles  with  the  wall  into  which  the 
principal  -  rafter  and    strut  are  tenoned;    in  some  roofs,  two  ranges  of   hammer-beams 


PLATE    VIII. 

Fig.  1  is  an  isomctrical  view  of  the  roof  presented  on  the  preceding  plate.  In  this  design 
the  wall-plate  upon  which  the  timbers  bear  is  4  inches  thick  l)y  14  inches  wide,  and  into  it  the 
angle  braces  arc  notched  and  bolted.  Into  these  are  framed  the  angle  pieces  which  support  the 
angle-rafters.  On  this  diagram  are  shown  the  relative  positions  and  connections  of  the  several 
timbers.  Fig.  2  shows,  on  a  large  scale,  the  heel  of  the  principal-rafter  or  truss-beam  under  the 
hip,  and  describes  the  method  of  its '  construction.  Fig.  3  is  a  section  showing  the  upper  end  of 
the  nifter  at  the  point  of  its  connection  with  the  iron  hcnd;  a  portion  of  the  brace;  the  purlin; 
and  a  part  of  the  common-rafter,  with  the  sheathing.  Fig.  4  shows  the  head  of  the  queen-post 
at  its  junction  with  the  principal-rafter  and  cambcr-bcam;  the  heel  of  the  truss-raftor ;  a  section 
of  the  purlin;  and  a  portion  of  the  common-rafter  and  sheathing.  Fig.  5  explains  the  mode  of 
bolting  the  heads  of  the  braces  to  the  camber-beam. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  TIMBERS. 


Tie-beam  of  Principal   ....  9X16  inches. 

Principal-rafters 9X1G  " 

Queen-posts,  (oak) 9Xl(i  " 

Camber-beam 9X10  " 

Upper-rafter 8X12  " 

Braces 7X7 

Purlins 4X10 


Common-rafters 3X5  inches. 

Look-out  joists ^xlO 

Angle-rafters 6X12 

Intermediate-rafters 6X12 

Siiort  studs 6X12 

Ceiling-joists 3X8 


(28) 


iPQ-^juao 


3!.oS€tnthal's  "Litii.  Hula 


PRINCIPLES    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    ROOFS.  29 

occur,  in  wliich  case  the  upper  range  differs  from  the  lower,  inasmuch,  that  instead 
of  the  principals  being  tenoned  into  them,  the  reverse  is  the  case. 

Of  late  years  many  roofs  have  been  constructed  of  iron,  a  material  which  began 
at  first  to  be  introduced  for  particular  members,  such  as  tie  and  suspension  rods,  but 
afterwards  became  employed  for  the  entire  truss,  and  sometimes  for  the  covering  like- 
wise. Iron  roofs  are  for  the  most  part  of  similar  construction  to  those  already 
described  of  timber,  those  members  which  are  subjected  to  tension,  such  as  ties  and 
suspending  rods,  being  of  wrought-iron  rods;  and  those  which  suffer  compression,  such 
as  principals  and  struts,  of  cast-iron.  Such  roofs  have  been  very  extensively  employed 
in  railway  works,  and  such  like. 

Having  advanced  so  far  in  our  notice  of  roofs  generally,  the  open  Gothic  roofs 
of  the  middle  ages,  differing  as  they  do  in  essential  matters  of  construction  from 
those  now  in  use,  claim  a  portion  of  our  attention. 

These  may  be  classed  in  four  divisions,  namely:  Roofs  with  tie-beams,  trussed 
rafter,  or  single-framed  roofs;  Eoofs  framed  with  hammer-beams  and  braces;  and 
Roofs  constructed  with  collars  and  braces,  or  with  the  latter  only. 

Of  the  first,  or  earliest  kind,  it  may  be  observed  that  they  were  never  entirely 
discarded  by  the  mediaeval  architects;  they  are  to  be  met  mth  in  Norman,  early 
English,  decorated  and  perpendicular  structures.  In  the  first  named,  they  were  pro- 
bably the  only  description  of  roofs  in  use.  The  tie-beam  was  sometimes  used  in 
medigeval  roofs,  independently  of  the  other  timbers,  being  simply  laid  across  the  walls, 
and  pinned  down  to  the  wall-plates.  Many  expedients  were  subsequently  had  recourse 
to  by  the  builders,  in  order  to  retain  and  make  it  an  ornamental  feature  in  the  design. 
In  some  instances  the  tie-beams  are  beautifully  moulded;  in  others  they  are  left  quite 
plain,  even  when  the  roof  itself  is  enriched  with  panelling  and  moulded  ribs,  and 
elaborately  carved  bosses.  In  roofs  of  low  pitch,  which  appear  to  have  been  in  use 
at  a  very  early  period,  the  beam  was  made  to  bear  the  whole  weight  of  the  roof. 
A  perfectly  horizontal  tie-beam  is  of  rare  occurrence;  where  a  tie-beam  is  used  we 
generally  find  it  cambered,  as  are  also  the  collar-beams;  even  the  hammer-beams 
will  generally  be  found  to  incline  upward  from  the  walls. 

The  disagreeable  effect  of  a  straight  tie-beam  was  often  further  counteracted  by 
having  curved  braces  framed  from  its  under  side,  connecting  it  with  the  wall-pieces, 
thus  forming  an  arched  support  for  it.  In  roofs  of  higher  pitch,  the  builders  still 
endeavored,  with  varied   success   as   to  effect,  to  retain  the  arched  shape  in  conjunc- 


PLATE    IX. 


Fi".  1  exhibits  a  method  of  framing  commonly  employed  in  hip-roofs.  In  this  example  a 
tie-beam  and  queen-posts  are  used;  it  may  readily  be  adapted  to  a  span  of  from  50  to  70  feet. 
To  accommodate  a  roof  of  this  description  to  a  given  pitch,  the  upper  portion  may  be  broken  at 
the  queen-posts  and  flattened  to  any  degree  necessary,  so  as  to  lessen  the  height  -which  would 
otherwise  be  attained  should  the  regular  line  of  pitch  be  continued.  By  this  means  a  difficulty 
■which  often  occurs  in  situations  where  a  high  pitch  is  objectionable,  may  be  easily  obviated. 
When  the  span  is  of  the  greatest  extent  advisable  in  roofs  of  this  description,  the  camber-beam 
should  be  trussed.  Each  of  the  queen-posts  form  three  sides  of  an  octagon,  to  which  are  united 
the  angle,  and  right-angle  rafters.  These  are  supported,  where  they  connect  with  the  queen- 
posts,  by  wrought-iron  shoes,  firmly  bolted  both  horizontally  and  vertically  with  joint  bolts;  in 
addition  to  which  the  introduction  of  a  thorough  bolt  serves  firmly  to  secure  the  upper  end  of 
the  plate  to  the  queen-post.  All  these  connections  are  fully  explained  by  Figs.  1,  3,  4,  5,  and  6, 
on  Plate  X.  In  this  design,  all  the  joints  of  the  timbers  butting  against  the  queen-posts  are 
curved  or  rule-jointed,  so  that  the  settlings  usually  occasioned  by  the  shrinkage  of  the  timbers 
may  retain  their  equal  bearings,  whereas  by  the  method  generally  pursued  in  making  joints  of 
this  character,  the  downward  tendency  is  calculated  to  destroy,  in  all  cases,  the  firmness  of  the 
joints,  no  matter  how  perfect  they  may  have  been  in  their  original  positions.  The  wall-plates 
for  a  roof  of  this  description  should  in  no  case  be  less  than  four  inches  in  thickness;  solidly 
embedded  upon  the  walls,  which  adds  much  to  their  stability.  These  should  also  be  firmly  dove- 
tailed together  at  the  angles;  in  addition  to  this  an  angle  brace  should  cross  each  of  the  corners 
at  a  distance  of  from  four  to  six  feet  from  the  angle  each  way,  with  its  ends  dove-tailed  into  the 
plate.  The  joints  of  the  wall-plate  should  in  all  cases  be  made  under  the  tie-beams,  and  these 
should  be  notched  into  the  plate.  Figs.  2  and  3  show  the  angle  and  right-angle  rafters,  with 
their  position  on  the   plan  of   hip. 

For  the  further  elucidation  of  this  design,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  succeeding  plate,  which 
contains  an  isometrical  view,  and  the  principal  connections  in  detail. 

(80 


PRINCIPLES    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    ROOFS.  31 

tion  with  the  tie-heams.  This,  however,  is  not  at  all  to  be  compared  with  the  efifect 
of  an  unbroken  arch.  In  many  tie-beam  roofs  the  form  of  tlie  arch  was  entirely 
omitted,  a  Icing-post,  rising  from  the  centre  of  the  tie-beam,  with  curved  braces 
springing  therefi'om  to  the  principals  and  ridge,  being  substituted.  Of  this  form 
there  are  various  adaptations. 

Triissed-rafter  roof.  This  form  of  roof  was  in  all  likelihood  chosen  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  headway;  and  having  once  been  employed,  its  superiority  to  the  tie- 
beam,  both  in  regard  to  construction  and  general  appearance,  led  to  its  being  preferred 
and  substituted  for  the  latter.  In  roofs  of  a  wide  span,  each  pair  of  rafters  had  a 
collar,  and  was  also  further  stiffened  by  braces,  crossing  at  times  above  the  collar, 
and  at  others  tenoned  into  its  under  side.  In  good  examples  of  this  form  of  cover- 
ing, each  separate  pair  of  rafters  is  trussed,  so  that,  viewed  from  below,  it  presents 
somewhat  the  appearance  of  an  arched  ceiling;  the  soffit  of  the  arch  (if  it  may  be 
so  termed)  of  this  kind  of  roof  is  pentagonal,  the  two  lower  inclined  sides  being 
formed  by  the  lower  part  of  the  rafters  themselves,  the  two  next  by  braces  passing 
obliquely  from  one  rafter  to  its  oj^posite,  and  the  upper  or  horizontal  side  by  the 
collar  which  intersects  the  braces.  In  roofs  of  this  character,  the  rafters  generally 
extended  to  the  outside  of  the  walls  and  formed  the  eaves;  consequently,  the  walls 
being  of  great  thickness,  and  never  carried  up  higher  than  the  wall-plates,  a  con- 
siderable space  intervened  on  the  inside  between  the  top  of  the  wall  and  the  under- 
side of  the  rafter.  Instead  of  allowing  the  rafter  to  pitch  upon  a  plate  laying  near  the 
outside  of  the  wall,  which  would  have  afforded  but  a  very  insecure  hold,  the  builders 
of  old  made  use  of  the  entire  thickness  of  the  wall,  by  filling  up  this  space  with 
struts  on  a  line  with  the  wall,  which  were  framed  into  the  under  side  of  the  rafters; 
and  by  connecting  these  with  the  foot  of  each  rafter  by  a  horizontal  piece  of  timber, 
into  which  each  was  framed,  so  as  to  assume  the  form  of  a  triangle  whose  base  was 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  they  contrived  to  obtain  an  excellent  hold.  This, 
perhaps,  gave  the  first  idea  of  the  beautiful  hammer-beam  roofs  that  still  adorn  so 
many  sacred  and  other  edifices. 

Hammer-heam  roofs  come  next  in  succession.  Among  the  many  varieties  of  this 
description  of  roof,  we  may  notice,  first,  those  formed  of  hammer-beams,  collars,  and 
struts,  connected  together  with  curved  braces.  Secondly,  those  in  which  the  collar- 
beam  is  omitted  and  the  curved  braces  are  carried  up  almost  to  the  ridge,  and  framed 
at  the  apex  of  the  arch  into  wedge-framed  struts,  into  which  the  principals  are  also 


PLATE    X. 

Fig.  1  presents  an  isometrical  view  of  the  roof  contained  on  Plate  IX.,  by  wliich  the  dispo- 
sition and  relative  positions  of  the  timbers,  with  their  connections,  etc.,  can  be  more  easily  under- 
stood. This  view  embraces  one  of  the  intermediate  principal -rafters,  the  timbers  of  which  are 
of  lighter  dimension  than  those  of  that  which  supports  the  hip  or  angle-rafters.  The  interme- 
diate tie-beams  are  attached  to  the  queen-posts  by  stirrups,  with  jibs  and  keys,  instead  of  the 
joint  bolts  employed  to  sustain  those  at  either  end.  Fig.  2  explains  the  connection  of  the  angle 
and  principal-rafters  with  the  head  of  the  queen-post.  Each  of  these  are  bolted  through  the 
queen-post  at  right-angles  with  the  pitch  of  the  roof.  Fig.  3  shows  the  connection  of  these 
rafters  with  the  braces  at  the  foot  of  the  queen-post.  Fig.  4  displays  a  section  of  the  tie-beam 
and  queen-post,  as  secured  together  by  an  iron  plate  and  joint  bolts.  Fig.  5  is  the  plan,  show- 
ing the  under  sides  of  the  tie-beams  and  their  connections  below  the  queen-post.  Fig.  G  is  a 
transverse   section  of  Fig.  4. 

The  purlins  are 'notched  into  the  principal -rafters,  and  the  common -rafters  into  the  purlins. 
The  thickness  of  the  various  bolts  will  of  course  be  regulated  by  the  extent  of  the  span  of 
the  roof. 

The  following  table  gives  the  dimensions  necessaiy  for  the  several  timbers  in  a  roof  of  seventy 
feet  span: — 


Tie-beam,  (supporting  angle-rafters)  9X16  inches. 


Principal-rafter  to  do.  .     .     . 

9X16 

Camber-beam 

(( 

9X16 

Quceu-posts 

ti 

14X14 

Braces 

It 

8X    8 

Common-rafters 

3X   Y 

Truss-rafters  to  camber-beara 

6X    8 

Tie-beam,  (of  intermediate-rafter)  8X  16  inches. 

Principal-rafter,        "  "    .  8  X 16 

Camber- beam,  "  "    .  8X16       " 

Queen-posts,  "  "    .  8X16 

Braces,  "  "    .  7X    7       " 

Purlins 4X10 


(32) 


l'^.^'^. 


Sam^  SIcELD.  Jorcti^ 


PRINCIPLES    AND    CONSTHrCTION    OF    ROOFS.  33 

tenoned.  Thirdly,  hammer-beam  roofs  having  collar-beams  and  no  struts;  and  lastly, 
those  which  have  neither  collar-beams  nor  struts.  The  following  is  an  example  of 
this  description,  in  which  the  arched  brace  is  formed  of  three  pieces  of  timj^r,  about 
three  inches  in  thickness,  one  on  either  side,  tenoned  into  the  hammer-laeam  and 
principal  and  reaching  up  as  far  as  the  purlin,  the  centre  piece  forming  the  apex  of 
the  arch,  being  tenoned  into  each  principal,  and  itself  acting  as  a  brace,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  as  a  collar-beam. 

These  are  the  most  usual  varieties  of  this  beautiful  form  of  roof,  although  there 
are  many  other  minor  diflferences  to  be  met  with. 

In  roofs  with  complete  collar-beams,  the  arched  braces  were  usually  made  in  four 
pieces,  two  uniting  the  hammer-beams  with  the  lower  half  of  the  principals,  and  the 
other  two  connecting  the  upper  halves  with  the  collar-beam.  There  are  many 
examples  of  roofs  having  two  ranges  of  hammer-beams.  The  object  of  these  second 
ranges,  with  their  braces  and  struts,  was  further  to  stiffen  the  principals,  and  bring 
what  strain  there  might  be  on  them  to  the  lower  range,  and  thence  directly  on  to 
the  wall;  the  effect  produced  by  these  two  series  of  hammer-beams  is  generally  less 
pleasing  than  that  of  a  single  hammer-beam  roof.  When  they  occur  the  roof  is 
usually  of  less  pitch  than  when  one  set  is  used. 

CoUar-hraced  roofs  constitute  the  last  division.  These  also  include  roofs  braced 
together  without  collar-beams;  the  braces,  which  are  usually  curved,  simply  connect- 
ing the  wall  pieces  and  principals  together.  This  style  of  roof  is  a  natural  simpli- 
fication of  the  hammer-beam  roof  The  curved  braces,  besides  bringing  the  different 
timbers  together,  serve  two  other  more  important  purposes.  First,  they  convey  the 
thrust  of  the  roof  lower  down  on  the  walls,  where  they  can  offer  a  greater  resistance 
to  any  lateral  pressure;  and  in  the  next  place,  they  serve  as  a  great  steadiment  to 
the  walls,  the  latter  being  by  far  the  most  important  of  their  uses. 

We  will  conclude  this  description  by  stating,  that  there  are  several  beautiful 
specimens  of  mediseval  roofs,  as  applied  to  other  than  ecclesiastical  purposes,  to  be 
found  among  the  old  palatial  edifices  and  interesting  public  halls  of  England.  Some 
of  these  are  in  excellent  preservation,  and  form  magnificent  and  striking  evidences 
of  the  taste  and  skill  of  the  architects  of  the  olden  time. 

Having  given  these  descriptions  of  various  kinds  of  roofs,  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  append  some  rules  for  finding  the  proper  scantlings  of  the  different  mem- 
bers, and  the  manner  in  which  each  member  is  affected. 

E 


PLATE    XL 

Fig.  1  represents  a  collar-beam  roof.  This  method  of  construction  is  usually  adopted  to 
facilitate  the  construction  of  a  curved  ceiling.  A  roof  of  this  character  may  be  introduced  for  a 
span  of  from  50  to  60  feet.  The  principal-rafters  are  bolted  into  the  tie  in  the  manner  usually 
employed  for  securing  them  to  tie-beams;  and  at  the  apex  they  butt  with  a  rule  joint  against  a 
cast-iron  head,  which  has  an  iron  saddle  bolted  over  the  upper  side,  to  receive  the  iron  stirrups  to 
the  tension-rods.  These  are  secured  to  the  rods  by  means  of  jibs  and  keys,  as  fully  explained 
by  Fig.  7.  The  lower  ends  of  the  tension-rods  pass  through  iron  shoes,  to  each  of  which  they 
are  secui'ed  by  a  nut;  these  shoes  are  placed  immediately  beneath  the  connection  of  the  collar- 
beam  with  the  tie-rafters.  At  this  point  an  upright  brace  is  placed,  heading  immediately  under 
the  junction  of  the  opposite  tie  and  the  principal-rafters.  The  ties  by  this  mode  are  halved 
together  at  their  point  of  crossing  in  the  centre,  tenoned  into  the  under  side  of  the  principal- 
rafters,  and  secured  thereto  by  joint  bolts.  The  collar-beam  is  of  double  thickness,  notched  one 
inch  in  depth  each  way,  with  a  tongue  or  back  to  each  of  the  halvings.  Fig.  2  represents  the 
shoe,  and  the  halvings  of  the  tie  and  collar-beam.  Fig.  3  shows  the  extension  of  the  heel,  which 
is  locked  into  the  wall-plate,  and  is  of  sufficient  length  to  admit  of  four  heel  bolts.  Fig.  4  shows 
the  manner  in  which  the  collar-beam  is  connected  with  the  principal-rafter.  Fig.  5  represents  the 
apex,  and  gives  the  detail  of  the  stirrups,  and  the  mode  of  then*  connection  with  the  tension-rods. 
Fig.  6  shows  the  connection  of  the  tie  with  the  principal-rafter,  where  it  is  secured  by  the  joint 
bolt.      Fig.  7  we  have  previously  referred  to. 

(34) 


iPQ.c.aa 


rietnx^  SLoarLArctLc 


Ko>?enT,hai  sXiliiJPhiU 


PRINCIPLES    AND     CONSTRUCTION     OF     ROOFS.  35 

King-post.  The  king-post  is  intended  to  support  the  ceiling,  and,  by  means  of 
the  braces,  part  of  the  weight  of  the  roof.  The  weight  suspended  by  the  king-post 
will  be  proportional  to  the  span  of  the  roof;    therefore,  to  find  the  scantling: — 

Rule.  Multiply  the  length  of  the  post  in  feet,  by  the  span  in  feet.  Then 
multiply  this  product  by  the  decimal  0"12  for  pine  or  by  O'lo  for  oak,  which  will  give 
the  area  of  section  of  the  king-post  in  inches;  and  this  area,  divided  by  the  breadth, 
will  give  the  thickness;    or  by  the  thickness,  will  give  the  breadth. 

Qiieerirposts.  Queen-posts  and  suspending-pieces  are  strained  in  a  similar  manner 
to  king-posts,  but  the  load  upon  them  is  only  proportional  to  that  part  of  the  length 
of  the  tie-beam  suspended  by  each  suspending-piece  or  queen-post.  In  queen-posts, 
the  part  suspended  by  each  is  generally  half  the  span. 

Rule.  Multiply  the  length,  in  feet,  of  the  queen-post  or  suspending-piece,  by 
that  part  of  the  length  of  the  tie-beam  it  supports,  also  in  feet.  This  product,  mul- 
tiplied by  the  decimal  0-27  for  pine  or  by  0-32  for  oak,  will  give  the  area  of  the  section 
of  the  first  in  inches;    and  this  area,  divided  by  the  thickness,  will  give  the  breadth. 

Tie-beams.  A  tie-beam  is  affected  by  two  strains:  the  one  in  the  direction  of 
the  length,  from  the  thrust  of  the  principal-rafters ;  the  other  is  a  cross  strain,  from 
the  weight  of  the  ceiling.  In  estimating  the  strength,  the  thrust  of  the  rafters  need 
not  be  considered.  The  pressure  of  the  weight  supported  by  the  tie-beams  will  be 
proportional  to  the  length  of  the  longest  part  of  it  that  is  unsupported. 

To  find  the  scantling  of  a  tie-beam  that  has  only  to  support  a  ceiling,  the  length 
of  the  longest  unsuj^ported  part  being  given: — 

Rule.  Divide  the  length  of  the  longest  unsupported  part  by  the  cube  root  of 
the  breadth,  and  the  quotient,  multiplied  by  1-47,  will  be  the  depth  required  for  pine 
in  inches;    or  multiplied  by  1'52,  will  give  the  depth  for  oak,  in  inches. 

Principal-rafters.  In  estimating  the  strength  of  principal-rafters,  we  may  suppose 
them  supported  by  struts,  either  at  or  very  near  all  the  points  where  the  purlins 
rest.  The  pressure  on  a  principal-rafter  is  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  is  in 
proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  roof;  but  the  effect  of  this  pressure  does  not  bear 
the  same  proportion  to  the  weight  when  there  is  a  king-post,  as  Avhen  there  are  queen- 
posts;    therefore  the  same  constant  number  will  not  answer  for  both  cases. 

Case  1.  To  find  the  scantling  of  the  principal-rafter,  when  there  is  a  king-post 
in  the  middle: — 

Rule.       Multiply  the  square  of  the  length  of  the  rafter  in  feet,  by  the  span  in 


PLATE    XII. 

On  Fig.  1  we  exliibit  in  isometrical  perspective  a  portion  of  the  roof  shown  in  Plate  XI. 
It  is  represented  as  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the  jack -rafters.  In  the  present  instance,  the 
principal-rafters  are  intended  to  be  notched  to  a  depth  of  1  inch  on  the  sides,  to  receive  the  pur- 
lins, which  will  be  notched  to  6  inches  of  their  depth  downward  on  the  rafters,  leaving  a  thickness 
of  4  inches  on  the  upper  side.  The  distance  at  which  the  purlins  should  be  placed  from  each 
other,  between  centres,  depends  entirely  upon  the  size  of  the  timbers  intended  for  common-rafters; 
for  3X4  inch  scantling  it  should  not  exceed  7  feet.  The  ribs  necessary  to  form  the  curved 
ceiling  may  be  made  of  plank,  cut  to  the  required  line  of  curvature.  These  should  be  secured 
by  3X4  inch  cross-scantlings,  placed  not  more  than  2  feet  apart.  These  again  should  be  cross- 
cleated  with  1X3  inch  strips,  following  the  line  of  curve,  at  a  distance  of  about  16  inches  between 
centres;  to  these  the  plastering  laths  can  be  nailed,  and  thus  those  unseemly  cracks  in  the  plas- 
tering, which  so  frequently  occur,  owing  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  timbci-s,  may  be  avoided. 

DIMENSIONS  OF   THE   TIMBERS. 


Principul-rafters 8X14  inches. 

Tie-rafters 8X14       " 

Collar-beams 6X12       " 

(30) 


Purlins 4  X  10  inches. 

Common-rafters 3X4       " 

Ridge-pole 3X8 


(PQ^^OB 


6  amS-  Slo'aii._A^  ch:t 


B.OS  an-QiaTeXitb  YJlil^ 


-^  PRINCIPLES    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    ROOFS.  37 

feet,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  cube  of  the  thickness  in  inches.      For  pine,  mul- 
tiply the  quotient  by  0"96,  which  will  give  the  depth  in  inches. 

Case  2.  To  find  the  scantling  of  the  rafter,  when  there  are  two  queen-posts, 
use  the  same  rule  as  in  Case  1,  multiplying  the  quotient  by  0-155,  instead  of  0-96. 

Straining-beams.  A  straining-beam  is  a  horizontal  piece  between  the  heads  of  the 
queen-posts.  That  this  beam  may  be  the  strongest  possible,  its  depth  should  be  to 
its  thickness  as  10  is  to  7. 

Rule.  Multiply  the  square  root  of  the  span  in  feet,  by  the  length  of  the  beam 
in  feet,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  product.  Multiply  the  root  by  0-9  for 
pine,  which  will  give  the  depth  in  inches.  To  find  the  thickness,  multiply  the  depth 
by  the  decimal  0-7. 

Struts  and  Braces.  That  part  of  a  roof  that  is  supported  by  a  strut  is  easily 
ascertained  from  the  design;  but  the  efiect  of  a  load  must  depend  on  the  position  of 
a  brace;  when  it  is  square  from  the  back  of  the  rafter,  the  strain  upon  it  will  be 
least;  and  when  it  has  the  same  inclination  on  the  roof,  the  same  strain  will  be 
thrown  on  the  lower  part  of  the  principal-rafter  as  is  borne  by  the  strut. 

Rule.  Multiply  the  square  root  of  the  length  supported  in  feet,  by  the  length 
of  the  brace  or  strut  in  feet,  and  the  square  root  of  the  product  multiplied  by  0-8 
for  pine  will  give  the  depth  in  inches;  and  the  depth  multiplied  by  0-6,  will  give 
the  breadth  in  inches. 

Purlins.  The  stress  upon  purlins  is  proportionable  to  the  distance  they  are  apart, 
and  the  weight  being  uniformly  diffused,  the  stiffness  is  reciprocally  as  the  cube  of  the 
length. 

Rule.  Multiply  the  cube  of  the  length  of  the  purlin  in  feet,  by  the  distance 
the  purlins  are  set  apart  in  feet,  and  the  fourth  root  of  the  product  for  pine  will  give 
the  depth  in  inches;  or  multiplied  by  1-04,  will  give  the  depth  for  oak;  and  the 
depth,  multiplied  by  the  decimal  0-6,  will  give  the  breadth. 

Gommonrrafters.  Common-rafters  are  uniformly  loaded,  and  the  breadth  need  not 
be  more  than  from  2h  inches  to  3  inches.  The  usual  depth  for  slate  may  be  found 
by  the  following  rule: — 

Rule.  Divide  the  length  of  the  bearing  in  feet  by  the  cube  root  of  the  breadth 
in  inches,  and  the  quotient,  multiplied  by  0-72  for  pine  or  0-74  for  oak,  will  give  the 
depth  in  inches. 


PLATE    XIII 

Fig.  1  is  an  example  of  a  roof  with  collar-beam  rafters  and  tension-rods,  adapted  for  a  span 
of  from  40  to  50  feet.  The  collar-beam,  it  will  be  seen,  is  locked  into  the  under  side  of  the 
principal-rafters,  and  secured  by  two  bolts  at  each  connection.  The  tension-rods  are  extended 
from  the  heel  of  the  rafters  to  the  apex,  in  a  single  bar,  passing  each  through  an  iron  shoe 
placed  on  the  under  side  of  collar-beam  and  secured  by  a  nut  at  either  end.  Immediately  over 
each  of  the  shoes,  near  to  the  point  where  the  bar  intersects  the  collar-beam,  is  placed  a  strut  or 
post  extending  to  the  principal-rafter,  into  which  it  is  notched  just  under  the  purlin.  The 
shoe  at  the  foot  of  each  rafter  is  secured  by  three  bolts.  The  upper  ends  butt  against  a 
cast-iron  head  with  a  rule  joint.  As  will  be  seen,  by  reference  to  the  plate,  this  roof  is 
intended  for  a  curved  ceiling.  The  curvature  of  the  arc  may  be  readily  formed  of  2  inch 
planks.  The  ribs  thus  formed  may  be  cross-cleated  with  2X4  inch  scantling,  notched  in  so 
as  to  afford  convenient  nailing,  and  the  whole  may  be  still  further  secured  by  planting  vertical 
cleating  against  the  sides  of  the  ribs  and  scantlings.  The  distance  of  the  cross-scantling  should 
not  exceed  IG  inches  between  centres,  so  as  to  insure  firm  nailing  to  the  plastering  laths.  Fig.  2 
shows  in  detail  the  mode  in  which  the  principal  and  common  rafters  butt  against  the  cast-iron  head 
at  the  apex;  the  manner  in  which  the  collar-beam  is  secured  and  bolted  to  the  under  side  of  the 
principal;  and  the  form  and  position  of  the  iron  shoe  and  camber-rod.  Fig.  3  represents  the  heels 
of  common  and  principal  rafters,  showing  the  construction  of  the  cornice  by  aid  of  the  look-out 
joists;  the  manner  in  which  the  heel-piece  is  bolted  to  the  principal;  and  also  how  the  lower  end 
of  the  camber-rod  intersects  the  rafter  and  is  secured.  Fig.  4  shows  the  manner  in  which  the 
collar-beam  is  connected  with  the  lower  side  of  the  principal-rafter. 


TABLE    OF    SCANTLINGS. 


Tie-beams tX  14  inches. 

Collar-beams 7X14       " 

Purlins 4X 10       " 

(38) 


Common-rafters 3X4  inches. 

Look-out  joists 3X10       " 

Ridge-pole 3X10 


^_.;i'jja 


~a-   -     LcazL  i-~r.*- 


J^.oserr^.AL  s"!ii's^^}ul^ 


SPIRES; 


THEIR  PROBABLE   ORIGIN  AND   PECULIARITIES  OF  STYLE. 


Having  reviewed  Domes  and  Eoofs,  briefly  noticing  their  most  remarkable  features, 
and  giving  such  historical  information  in  regard  to  their  origin  and  progress  as  might 
be  deemed  interesting,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  offer  some  observations  on  Spires, 
having  reference  more  particularly  to  their  probable  origin, — a  subject  enveloped  in 
much  mystery,  and  which  seems  to  be  little  understood  5  and  those  peculiarities  of 
style  which  mark  the  different  erections  of  this  character,  in  the  several  periods  of 
ecclesiastical  architecture. 

It  seems  very  unaccountable,  that  neither  history  nor  tradition  should  have  pre- 
served the  least  remembrance  of  the  origin  of  spires.  Their  original  builders,  how- 
ever, must  have  had  some  special  motive  in  their  erection,  for  we  can  hardly  conceive 
that  appendages  so  expensive  and  difficult  of  execution  should  be  merely  the  result  of 
caprice.  About  the  twelfth  century  the  custom  of  burying  in  churches  appears  to 
have  become  general  throughout  Europe,  consequently  the  same  fabric  was  at  once  a 
cemetery  and  a  church.  The  architects  of  the  structures  intended  for  this  two-fold 
use,  would  naturally  desire  to  engraft  upon  their  style  some  characteristic  denoting 
the  double  purpose  for  which  these  early  churches  were  intended.  What  more  pro- 
bable than  that  they  should  turn  back  for  precedent  to  the  nations  of  antiquity? 
The  history  and  antiquities  of  these  nations  would  at  once  inform  them,  that  it  was 
the  invariable  practice  of  all  civilized  communities  who  believed  in  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  to  erect  lofty  pyramids  over  their  cemeteries  or  places  of  sepulture. 
May  not  the  Gothic  architect   in   like  manner   have  adopted   the   pyramidal  form  to 

(39) 


PLATE    XIV. 

Fig.  1.  A  rafter  constructed  upon  the  principle  shown  in  this  plate  may  be  used  with  perfect 
safety  in  a  span  extending  from  40  to  50  feet.  In  the  present  instance  a  tie-rafter,  sustained 
and  strengthened  by  bolts  at  the  several  connections,  is  substituted  for  the  camber-rod  used  in 
Plate  XIII.  This  example  also  differs  in  other  particulars  from  either  of  those  intended  for 
curved  ceihngs,  vrhich  are  given  in  the  preceding  plates.  The  timbers  are  to  be  halved  and  locked 
together  at  all  the  joints,  excepting  those  at  the  heels  and  upper  ends  of  the  principal-rafters;  the 
former  are  secured  with  bolts,  shoes,  etc.,  as  shown;  the  latter  butt  against  a  cast-iron  head,  as  in 
the  instances  previously  referred  to.  The  halvings  are  each  one-fourth  in  depth,  with  the  ends 
reversed. 

It  ought  here  to  be  remarked,  that  all  the  timbers  used  in  the  construction  of  a  roof  on  this 
principle  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned,  as  much  depends  upon  the  joints  remaining  perfect.  If  a 
roof  of  this  description  be  executed  with  care,  it  will  prove  perfectly  reliable,  and  may  be  applied 
with  confidence  to  the  greater  of  the  spans  above  mentioned.  The  ceiling  may  be,  in  this  case, 
constructed  and  prepared  for  the  plaster  in  the  manner  mentioned  in  the  example  preceding. 

Fig.  2  represents,  on  a  large  scale,  the  heels  of  the  principal  and  common  rafters;  the  cornice 
as  secured  to  the  look-out  joists;  and  the  sheathing  as  prepared  for  the  metal.  Fig.  3  shows  the 
junction  of  the  tops  of  the  principals  with  the  cast-iron  head;  and  Fig.  4  shows  the  crossings  of 
the  lower  timbers. 

TABLE  OF   SCANTLINGS. 


Principal-rafters 6  X  14  inches. 

Tie-rafters 6X12      " 

Collar-beam 7X12      " 

(40) 


Purlins 4X10  inches. 

Common-rafters 3X4       " 

Look-out  joists 3X10       " 


iPioixav 


Soservthalis L.tS\  .Ihil'* 


SPIRES;     THEIR    ORIGIN    AND     STYLE.  41 

characterize  the  cemetery,  at  the  same  time  that  they  preserved  the  figure  of  the 
cross  in  then-  ground  plans,  the  better  to  denote  the  Christian  temple?  Hence,  per- 
haps, the  origin  of  spires,  and  the  subsequent  introduction  of  pinnacles,  pointed  arches, 
angular  ornaments,  etc. 

The  probable  reason  here  assigned  for  the  origin  of  spires  may  be  also  similarly 
applied  to  those  curious  constructions,  the  round  towers,  still  to  be  found  in  exist- 
ence near  the  ruins  of  some  of  the  old  churches  in  Ireland;  for  it  may  be  remarked 
that  at  the  time  these  towers  were  built  the  architects  of  that  country  were  unac- 
quainted with  the  art  of  raising  a  spire  over  the  pillars  at  the  intersection  of  the 
nave  and  transepts.  They  may  have  had  recourse  then  to  an  easier  but  less  sci-  ■ 
entific  expedient,  by  constructing  upon  solid  bases  those  round  pyramids,  the  existing 
examples  of  which  all  terminate  like  the  Egyptian  obelisk.  Notwithstanding  the 
many  learned  conjectures  which  have  been  hazarded  respecting  the  use  of  these 
pyramids,  we  think  it  may  not  unreasonably  be  concluded  that  they  were  simply 
intended  to  denote  cemeteries.  And  their  proximity  to  churches  strengthens  this 
supposition. 

It  has  also  been  remarked,  "that  spires  owe  their  origin  and  use  to  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  Christian  worship,  which  invites  all  persons  to  join  in  its  ceremonies 
and  partake  of  its  benefits,  differing  in  this  respect  essentially  from  all  previous  reli- 
gious systems.  From  this  arose  the  use  of  bells  to  notify  the  time  of  meeting,  and 
also  the  appropriate  buildings  to  contain  them;  which,  in  order  to  diffuse  more  widely 
the  sounds,  were  elevated  above  the  contiguous  ordinary  dwellings.  These  buildings 
were  called  Campaniles,  and  in  the  early  Christian  churches  were  often  detached  from 
the  edifice  and  placed  in  a  corner  of  the  surrounding  area.  With  the  use  of  the 
Christian  religion  extended  the  use  of  such  towers,  which  became  necessary  adjuncts 
to  buildings  erected  for  its  service.  In  these,  therefore,  they  have  always  formed 
conspicuous  features,  and  are  to  be  met  with  in  almost  every  variety  of  form  and 
situation  consistent  with  their  essential  quality  of  loftiness.  As  the  mediaeval  archi- 
tecture gradually  improved  in  lightness  and  elegance,  the  steeples  became  more  slender 
and  lofty,  and,  to  assimilate  their  outhne  more  completely  with  the  leading  lines  of 
the  style,  spires  were  added,  which,  from  the  stability  of  the  pyramidal  form,  could 
be  carried  to  a  greater  height  than  would  otherwise  have  been  practicable.  Hence 
originated  the  Christian  steeple." 

Having   discussed   the   probable   origin   of  the   spire,  and   the   uses   to  which   its 

F 


PLATE    XV. 

Fig.  1  is  an  example  also  applicable  to  a  span  of  from  40  to  50  feet.  This  is  likewise 
designed  for  a  curved  ceiling.  At  the  heel  the  principal-rafter  is  bolted  to  a  tie,  which  terminates 
at  the  centre  of  the  collar-beam  by  butting  against  its  fellow,  which  proceeds  from  the  opposite 
direction.  Both  of  these  are  notched  between  the  collar-beam,  and  a  tension-bar  passing  through 
at  the  notch  on  either  side,  intersects  the  principal  close  to  the  head  and  is  secured  by  a  nut  on 
the  outer  edge.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  example  the  collar-beam  is  halved,  having  its  ends 
locked  into  the  principal,  and  being  further  secured  by  bolts  at  the  connection.  The  upper  ends 
of  the  principal-rafters  butt  to  a  cast-u-on  head,  and  the  heels  require  shoes,  which  have  then-  bear- 
ing on  the  wall-plates.  At  the  points  where  the  collar-beam  is  intersected  by  the  tension-bars, 
posts  or  struts  arc  inserted,  which  extend  to  the  under  side  of  the  upper  purlin.  These  are 
intended  to  equalize  the  camber  produced  in  the  principals  by  the  tightening  of  the  tension-bars. 
The  manner  in  wliich  the  curve  of  the  ceiUng  is  formed  may  readily  be  seen  by  reference  to 
Plates  XIII.  and  XIV.  Fig.  2  shows  the  connection  of  the  rafters  with  the  cast-iron  head.  Fig.  3 
explains  the  mode  of  halving  ties  with  collar-beam.  Fig.  4  shows  the  heels  of  the  principal  and 
common  rafters ;  the  lower  purlin,  and  the  formation  of  the  cornice.  Figs.  5  and  6  show  the  notchings 
where  the  ties  cross  the  collar-beam.  Fig.  T  is  a  section  of  the  tie  showing  the  notchings  where 
the  collar-beam  crosses.  Fig.  8  is  a  section  showing  the  notchings  on  the  principal-rafter  for  the 
end  of  the  collar-beam.  Figs.  9  and  10  show  the  notchings  at  the  ends  of  the  collar-beam, 
where  they  are  intended  to  be  joined  into  the  principal-rafters. 

DIMENSIONS  OP  THE  TIMBERS. 


Principal-rafters 7X14  inches. 

Ties 7X14      " 

Collar-beams 6X12      " 

(42) 


Purlins 4X10  inches. 

Common-rafters 3X4       " 

Ridge-piece 3X10       " 


(F-U.»\y 


F,_y   3 


/■;,/    i 


^Sf/         jj 


—  ^.J 


Sairinir.u; 


IRoser.tlial  s  Rtn  pjv"^;* 


SPIRES;     THEIR    ORIGIN    AND     STYLE.  43 

earlier  prototypes  may  have  possibly  been  dedicated,  we  will  now  proceed  more  fully 
to  define  the  term  spire,  as  more  particularly  applied  in  pointed  architecture,  taking 
occasion  to  notice  the  peculiarities  of  the  difierent  styles,  and  concluding  with  a  few 
short  practical  remarks. 

A  Spire  is  an  acutely  pointed  termination  or  covering,  most  usually  found  on 
towers  of  churches,  or  turrets.  Spires  are  constructed  either  of  stone  or  wood,  the 
latter  description  being  generally  covered  with  lead,  slate,  or  shingles.  They  are 
usually  carried  to  a  great  height,  and  terminated  at  the  apex  mth  a  finial,  metal 
cross,  or  vane.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  very  decided  approach  toward  spire 
building  was  made  in  English  ecclesiastical  architecture  for  a  considerable  time  after 
the  Norman  conquest.  In  the  earliest  examples  they  are  usually  of  the  same  plan 
as  the  tower,  either  square,  circular,  or  octagonal,  and  are  of  very  great  height. 
Thus,  in  some  of  the  early  churches  of  Britain  and  Normandy,  circular  turrets  ter- 
minate in  circular  spires;  in  another  an  octagonal  turret  has  an  octagonal  spire;  while 
in  others  square  towers  are  surmounted  by  square  spires  or  pjrramids.  These  were 
commonly  of  very  low  proportions  compared  with  later  structures,  and  in  truth  were 
little  more  than  pyramidal  roofs;  the  whole  of  the  remaining  specimens  of  this  date 
are  of  stone,  and  rise  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  walls,  so  as  to  leave  no  parapet 
or  gutter  around  the  base.  These  high  pyramidal  roofs  were  clearly  the  harbinger 
of  spires,  and  have  therefore  that  term  generally  applied  to  them,  though  scarcely 
deserving  of  the  name. 

As  the  early  English  style  arose,  a  considerably  greater  elevation  was  given  to 
spires,  although  they  were  still  very  frequently  less  acute  than  they  afterwards  became. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  rare  examples,  the  spires  of  this  period  were  always 
octagonal,  and  when  placed  on  square  towers  the  angles  of  the  tower  not  covered  by 
the  base  of  the  spire  were  occupied  by  pinnacles,  or  by  semi-pyramidal  masses  of 
masonry  sloping  back  against  the  spire.  The  outline  was  generally  broken  by  one 
or  more  tiers  of  small  open  windows,  termed  spire  lights,  the  faces  of  which  were 
vertical,  and  therefore  projected  out  at  the  top  from  the  sloping  sides  of  the  tower. 
These  were  usually  covered  with  gablets  or  sharp  pediments,  and  were  sometimes 
placed  on  the  alternate  faces  of  the  spire  in  alternate  tiers.  Early  English  spires  were 
usually  what  are  termed  hroach  spires;  that  is  to  say,  they  were  usually  made  to  spring 
directly  from  the  exterior  of  the  tower  walls  without  the  intervention  of  a  parapet, 
whereas  in  the  later  styles  gutters  and  parapets  around  the  bases  were  seldom  omitted. 


PLATE    XVI. 


DESIGN   I. 


Fig.  3  is  a  principal-rafter,  designed  to  span  an  extent  of  from  30  to  40  feet.  Fig.  1  shows 
the  footing  of  the  braces  upon  the  tie-beams.  Fig.  2  shows  the  ends  of  the  rafters  at  their  con- 
nection with  the  iron  licad.  Figs.  4  and  5  show  a  slight  change  in  the  mode  of  construction, 
whereby  the  tenons  used  in  the  rafters  on  Figs.  1  and  2  are  dispensed  with.  Fig.  G  explains  the 
manner  in  which  the  heel  is  connected  with  the  tie-beam,  and  the  construction  of  the  gutter. 

TABLE  OP   SCANTLINGS. 


Tie-beam 6X12  inches. 

Purlins 4X    8       " 

Common-rafters 3X4       " 


Principal-rafter 6X12  inches. 

Braces 4X    6       " 

Look-out  joists 3X8 


DESIGN   II. 

Fig.  9  is  a  description  of  roof  applicable  for  a  span  of  from  60  to  60  feet.  In  this  example 
the  joints  are  square,  and  butt  together  in  connection  with  an  iron  plate  at  the  apex,  and  in  a 
manner  almost  similar  at  the  foot  of  the  braces.  The  tic-beam  is  sustained  by  three  bolts,  the 
central  one  serving  as  a  king-post.  When  the  span  is  of  the  widest  advisable  extent,  the  centre- 
bolt  should  be  IJ,  and  those  on  either  side  IJ  inches  in  diameter.  The  tie-beam  should  have  from 
2J  to  3  inches  of  camber  when  tightened  up.  The  mode  of  construction  employed  in  this  roof  is 
very  simple,  and  well  adapted  for  either  of  the  given  spans.  It  is  also  perfectly  reliable,  and  will 
sustain  itself  without  danger  of  deflection,  provided  the  timbers  are  thoroughly  seasoned.  Fig.  10 
explains  the  connection  at  the  apex,  showing  the  centre-bolt;  a  section  of  the  ridge-pole;  and  the 
common-rafter  with  the  sheathing.  Fig.  11  is  a  section  of  the  tie-beam,  showing  the  centre-bolt, 
and  the  iron  shoe  over  which  the  braces  butt.  Fig.  12  shows  the  heel  of  the  rafter,  and  its  con- 
nection with  tlio  tie-beam;   the  purlin;  the  gutter,  etc. 

DIMENSIONS   OF  TIMBERS. 


Tie-beam 8X14  inches. 

Braces CX    6 

Common-rafters 3X    5       " 

(44) 


Principal-rafter 8X14  inches. 

Purlins 4X10       " 

Look-out  joists 3X9       " 


^a-m^  SToam.  Ait"S* 


SPIRES;     THEIR    ORIGIN    AND     STYLE.  45 

Daring  the  prevalence  of  the  Decorated  style,  spires  were  almost  always  very 
acute ;  they  generally  had  gutters  or  parapets,  though  broach  spires  of  this  date  are 
by  no  means  uncommon.  They  did  not  differ  materially  from  the  early  spires  except 
in  the  character  of  the  details  and  the  amount  of  enrichments,  which  now  began  to 
be  introduced  in  profusion ;  crockets  were  often  carved  at  the  angles,  and  small  bands 
of  panelling  or  other  ornaments  formed  around  them  at  different  heights  ;  the  open- 
ings were  also  often  enriched  Avith  crockets,  finials,  and  pinnacles ;  the  angular  pin- 
nacles were  also  enlarged,  and  not  unfrequently  connected  with  the  spire  by  small 
flying  buttresses.  Many  fine  examples  of  this  style  and  date  remain  in  England  and 
Normandy.  In  the  latter  country  they  are  generally  ornamented  externally  with 
shallow  Vandykes,  little  arches,  or  other  similar  patterns  cut  on  the  surface  ;  these 
are  sometimes  arranged  in  bands,  and  sometimes  spread  over  the  whole  spire.  They 
are  also  frequently  pierced  with  a  number  of  small  openings. 

In  the  Perpendicular  style  the  same  general  arrangement  was  continued,  although 
the  character  of  the  details  and  enrichments  was  altered  in  common  with  the  other 
features  of  Gothic  architecture.  At  this  period  broach  spires  seem  to  have  been 
abandoned. 

In  the  Flamboyant  style  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  spires  somewhat  partook  of 
the  same  redundancy  of  ornament  as  the  rest  of  the  buildings.  There  are  many  rich 
examples  of  this  date  of  beautiful  design  still  in  existence. 

Before  concluding  this  part  of  our  subject  we  may  instance  a  few  of  the  more 
remarkable  of  these  constructions. 

The  spire  of  old  St.  Paul's  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  which  we  have  any  account. 
It  was  finished  in  the  year  1222,  and  was  in  height  534  feet,  being  39  feet  higher 
than  the  Great  Pyramid. 

That  of  Strasburgh,  built  by  the  famous  Irwin  de  Steinbach,  is  474  feet  high. 
It  is  noticeable  for  its  curious  construction,  being  formed  so  entirely  of  open  work  as 
to  resemble  a  pile  of  scaffolding. 

Some  spires,  instead  of  having  the  sides  straight,  are  formed  with  an  entasis  or 
swelling  outwards,  as  at  Caythorp,  Lincolnshire,  Northamptonshire,  and  some  other 
places;    this  kind  of  construction  is  found  in  the  Decorated  and  Perpendicular  styles. 

No  settled  proportion  seems  to  have  been  observed  in  the  dimensions  of  spires 
in  general.  Sometimes  the  height  did  not  exceed  four  times  the  diameter  of  the 
base,  while  at  other  times  the  ratio  of  the  height  to   the  breadth  taken  at  the  base 


PLATE    XVII. 

Fig.  1  is  a  design  for  an  open  timber  roof  in  the  Gothic  stylo,  suited  to  a  span  extending 
from  GO  to  70  feet.  This  form  of  roof  is  possessed  of  striking  and  beautiful  features.  It  is  in 
strict  accordance  -with  the  spirit  of  media;val  architecture,  and  may  be  very  advantageously  and 
judiciously  introduced  in  any  considerable  structure  which  partakes  of  this  character.  In  this 
example  the  rafters  are  notched  together,  except  at  the  apex,  where  they  butt  against  an  iron-head, 
through  which  passes  an  iron  rod  which'  serves  as  a  king-post.  The  purlins  have  their  bearings 
over  the  connections  by  which  the  truss  is  foi-med.  One  half  of  the  elevation  of  the  rafter  shows 
the  framing,  displaying  the  several  connections  of  the  timbers  at  the  heel,  and  with  the  hammer- 
beam,  side-post,  perdent-post,  and  curved  brace.  The  corresponding  half  of  the  elevation  shows 
the  complete  finish  of  the  roof,  with  its  mouldings,  tracery,  spandrels,  etc.  The  line  of  the  plas- 
tering for  ceiling  is  seen  on  the  upper  side  of  the  moulded  rib.  Figs.  2  and  3  are  portions  of 
the  preceding,  drawn  to  a  larger  scale,  so  as  to  be  rendered  more  perspicuous.  Figs.  4  and  5 
are  sections  of  the  moulded  rib. 

TABLE   OP  DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  TIMBERS  IN  A   SPAN  OP   SIXTY  PEET. 


Principal-rafters 9X14  inches. 

Tie-rafter 9X14      " 

Hammer-beam 9  X 14       " 

Collar-beams,  (each  double)    ..5X12       " 

(46) 


Side-posts,  (each  double)    .     .     .  5X12  inches. 

Pendent-posts,  (single)  ....  9  X    9       " 

Purlins 4X10       " 

Common-rafters 3X5      " 


iio^v'ja 


Sajn-^  SluajL^rcK^ 


SPIRES;     THEIR     ORIGIN    AND     STYLE.  47 

was  as  eight  to  one.  We  have  an  example  of  the  last- mentioned  proportion  in  the 
spire  built  by  Hugh  Sibergin  upon  the  towers  of  St.  Nicase,  the  two  largest  of  which 
were  50  feet  high  upon  a  base  of  6  feet. 

Notwithstanding  the  amazing  height  to  which  many  spires  were  carried,  they  were 
constructed  so  exceedingly  shght  that  we  should  be  apt  to  conclude — reasoning  from 
theory — that  they  would  be  inadequate  to  sustain  their  own  weight.  That  of  Salis- 
bury, for  instance,  is  but  seven  inches  thick,  and  that  of  Batalha  is  of  no  greater 
thickness,  taken  independent  of  the  embossed  work,  with  which  almost  a  fourth  of 
its  superficies  is  perforated.  Great  care  must  consequently  have  been  taken  in  select- 
ing the  materials  of  which  such  slight  fabrics  were  constructed,  especially  as  they  are 
generally  supposed  to  be  connected  without  the  aid  of  iron  cramps,  for  this  metal, 
when  exposed  to  air  or  moisture,  is  liable  to  contract  rust,  which,  in  time,  will  shiver 
in  pieces  that  portion  of  the  block  with  which  it  comes  in  immediate  contact.  It 
is  said  that  the  stones  of  the  spire  of  Batalha  are  keyed  together  by  means  of  dove- 
tail wedges  of  pine  wood.  It  is  pretty  certain  that  the  ancients  on  similar  occasions 
adopted  this  expedient.  Wedges,  or  cramps  of  wood,  have  been  found  in  ancient 
Roman  buildings,  and  in  several  instances  among  the  ruins  of  old  temples  in  Athens 
and  Sicily.  Cramps  of  copper  were  also  used  by  the  ancients  in  their  buildings, 
which  were  tempered  to  an  exceeding  hardness. 

There  are  many  fine  spires  in  Normandy,  of  which  a  considerable  number  appear 
to  belong  to  the  period  of  transition  from  the  early  French  to  the  Decorated  style,  of 
which  those  at  Ifs-les-Alemague,  near  Caen,  and  Bretteville  I'Orqueilleuse,  between 
Caen  and  Bayeux,  are  good  examples.  Beautiful  examples  of  the  Flamboyant  exist 
at  Chartres  Cathedral,  the  Church  of  St.  Jean,  Soissons,  etc. ;  there  are  others  of 
plainer  character  at  Harfleur  and  Lillebonne,  in  Normandy.  The  latter  of  these 
rises  from  an  octagonal  lantern  on  the  top  of  the  tower,  an  arrangement  which  is  not 
unusual  on  the  continent;    the  lantern  almost  always  consists  of  open  work. 

The  foregoing  observations  refer  to  spires  of  stone ;  but  spires  were  often  made  of 
timber  and  covered  either  with  lead  or  shingles.  Many  specimens  of  these  old  timber 
spires,  covered  with  shingles,  are  still  to  be  met  with  in  England;  a  curious  example 
of  one  covered  with  lead  remains  at  Chesterfield,  Derbyshire,  in  which  the  lead  is  so 
disposed  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  the  spire  being  twisted;  most  of  these  spires 
are  so  devoid  of  architectural  features  as  to  afford  no  clue  to  their  date ;  some  of 
them   may  be  decorated,  but  the  majority  are  probably  perpendicular. 


PLATE    XVIII. 

Fig.  1  Is  an  example  of  a  roof  formed  witli  a  king-post,  braces,  and  side-bolts.  The  tie- 
beam  is  sustained  to  the  king-post  by  an  iron  stirrup,  and  the  heads  of  the  rafters  are  secured  in 
a  similar  manner  at  the  apex.  Both  of  these  are  fastened  with  jibs  and  keys.  The  ends  of  the 
rafters  and  braces  butt  against  the  king-post  with  curved  joints.  This  rafter  may  readily  be 
adapted,  and  with  perfect  safety,  to  a  span  of  50  feet.  When  king  or  queen  posts  are  used  they 
should  be  formed  of  hard  wood.  For  this  purpose  oak  is  preferable,  as  it  is  more  capable  of 
resisting  the  pressure  at  the  connections  than  the  softer  material  commonly  employed  for  the 
rafters  and  tie-beams.  Fig.  2  shows  the  heads  of  the  king-post  and  rafters,  drawn  to  a  large 
scale.  Fig.  3  shov.s  the  connection  of  the  brace  with  the  principal-rafter.  Fig.  4  displays  por- 
tions of  the  tie-beam  and  king-post ;  shows  the  mode  of  their  connection  by  means  of  the  stirrup ; 
and  the  footing  of  the  braces.  Fig.  5  shows  a  portion  of  the  tie-beam  ;  the  heel  of  the  rafter  ; 
the  lower  purlin ;   the  mode  of  forming  the  gutter ;  and  the  common-rafter,  with  the  sheathing,  etc. 

TABLE  OF   SCANTLINGS. 


Tie-beam 7X12  inches. 

Principal-rafter 7X12 

King-post 7X16 

Braces 6X    6 

Purlins 4X    9 


Ridge-piece 3X10  inches. 

Common-rafters 3X5       " 

Look-out  joists 3X10       " 

Wall-plate 4X12 


(48) 


i'   i-     ■'-      -  „  J 


S3Tn"*'  Sica'n  ^:ri"*- 


■E-oserrOiall^ftli  3*iula 


SPIRES;     THEIR    ORIGIN    AND     STYLE.  49 

On  the  continent  there  are  some  timber  spires,  apparently  of  Flamboyant  con- 
struction, considerably  ornamented,  with  portions  formed  of  open  work  entirely  cased 
in  lead ;  small  light  spires  of  similar  chai'acter  are  also  to  be  seen  frequently,  rising 
from  the  roofs  of  churches,  especially  over  the  east  end  of  the  choir.  There  are 
also  numerous  plain  spires  in  Normandy  and  Flanders,  many  of  which  are  covered 
with  small  slates,  probably  modern  substitutes  for  lead  or  shingles. 

Having  noticed  the  peculiar  form  and  characteristics  of  spires,  during  the  preva- 
lence of  the  Gothic  styles,  we  will  briefly  refer  to  those  of  later  construction. 

It  is  apparent,  as  before  remarked,  that  this  species  of  composition  owes  its  origin 
and  use  to  the  Christian  worship.  When,  therefore,  during  the  seventeenth  century, 
influenced  principally  by  the  compositions  of  Inigo  Jones  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 
a  great  change  was  effected  in  the  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  England,  this  form 
was  not  discarded.  The  steeples  which  then  came  into  use  were  in  imitation  of  the 
early  spires.  Of  the  many  classic  structures  with  which  the  taste  and  genius  of 
Wren  embellished  London,  the  majority  have  steeples.  Some  of  these  are  constructed 
wholly  or  in  part  of  wood.  Of  the  form,  however,  used  by  the  mediajval  architects, 
nothing  but  the  general  idea  is  preserved.  For  the  slender  and  acutely  pointed 
spires  with  which  they  terminated  their  towers,  compartments  are  substituted,  in 
which  the  classic  orders  form  a  conspicuous  feature ;  and  the  superstructure  is  generally 
finished  in  receding  gradations,  each,  at  least  the  lower  of  these,  being  composed  of 
columns  and  a  regular  entablature.  Urns,  pyramidal,  and  other  ornaments  are  also 
employed,  and  the  apex  generally  terminates  in  a  small  and  slender  adaptation  of  the 
spire.  In  some  instances  different  orders  are  employed  in  the  several  stories  of  the 
same  steeple. 

A  few  concluding  remarks  may  now  be  made  in  regard  more  particularly  to  spire 
construction  among  ourselves. 

Our  large  and  rapidly  increasing  population,  and  the  consequent  necessity  which 
exists  for  enlarged  church  accommodation,  make  this  a  matter  of  much  imjDortance  to 
all.  While  churches  are  urgently  required  in  our  large  towns  and  teeming  cities, 
they  are  scarcely  less  needed  in  small  villages  and  sparsely  populated  districts.  The 
church — no  less  than  the  school-house — is  the  inseparable  accompaniment  of  American 
progress.  Economy  in  their  erection  is  generally  desirable,  and  in  many  instances 
indispensable.  Thus,  those  immediately  interested  in  these  constructions  are  often 
compelled,  contrary  to  their  own  immediate  wishes  and  preferences,  to  dispense  with 

G 


PLATE    XIX. 

Fig.  1  is  a  roof  constructed  with  queen-posts,  to  which  the  tie-beam  is  sustained  by  means  of 
iron  stirrups,  fastened  with  jibs  and  keys,  as  in  the  preceding  example  on  Plate  XVIII.  It 
may  be  applied  to  a  60  or  65  feet  span.  In  the  larger  span  the  camber-beam  should  be  sus- 
tained to  the  small  king-post  by  a  joint-bolt,  as  shown  on  the  plate.  Where,  as  in  this  instance, 
the  queen-posts  are  notched  into  the  tie-beam  to  resist  the  thrust  of  the  braces,  the  straining- 
piece  is  omitted.  In  a  span  of  this  extent  the  camber  of  the  tie-beam  should  be  3J  inches.  Fig.  2 
shows  the  head  of  the  small  king-post  over  the  camber-beam.  Fig.  3  shows  the  head  of  the  side- 
bolt,  and  the  connection  of  the  brace  with  the  principal-rafter.  Fig.  4  describes  the  connection 
between  the  head  of  the  queen-post,  the  camber-beam,  and  the  rafters,  showing  the  position  of 
the  bolt,  the  section  of  the  purlin,  and  a  portion  of  the  sheathing.  Fig.  5  shows  the  notch  at 
the  bottom  of  the  queen-post ;  the  foot  of  the  brace ;  and  the  iron  stirrup  which  sustains  the  tie- 
beam.  Fig.  G  is  explanatory  of  the  several  connections  at  the  heels  of  the  rafters  with  the  tie- 
beam,  look-out  joists,  gutter,  etc. 

TABLE   OF   SCANTLINGS. 


Tie-beam 9X16  inches. 

Principal-rafter 9X14 

Camber-beam 9X14 

Queen-post       .    ' 9X10 

Braces G  X    7 

King-post,  over  camber-beam      .  6X8 


Upper  truss-rafters 6X8  inches. 

Burlins 4X10       " 

Common-rafters 3X   5       " 

Look-out  joists 3  X 10       " 

Raising-plate 4X    G 


(60) 


IPa...5S!ES 


S  arrt?- Sio  amAr  cIl" 


_tlr:. se-nfc.&i'^  Tvfb^i^l, 


SPIRES;     TUEIll     ORIGIN    AND     STYLE.  51 

the  spire,  solely  on  account  of  the  increased  outlay  which  its  erection  would  involve. 
Heavy  and  costly  spires  of  stone,  similar  to  those  of  the  mediaeval  times,  are  there- 
fore in  most  cases  too  expensive,  and  in  many  altogether  inapplicable.  With  us, 
timber  is  almost  always  a  suitable  and  desirable  material.  It  is  cheap,  light,  and 
abundant.  Spires  of  wood  can  be  erected  on  comparatively  slight  foundations;  in 
ordinary  cases  their  framing  is  of  easy  construction,  and  they  are  capable  of  being 
carried  to  a  great  altitude  at  a  moderate  expense.  They  are  also  susceptible  of  easy 
adaptation  to  any  style,  and  can  be  formed  as  much  in  keeping  with  the  character 
of  the  simple  and  unpretending  village  fane,  as  that  of  the  more  costly  and  magnifi- 
cent temple  of  the  great  city.  Of  late  years,  many  spires  of  this  description  have 
been  erected  in  our  cities,  and  throughout  the  country  generally.  Some  of  these  are 
of  beautiful  proportion  and  amazing  height.  There  can  be  no  more  pleasing  feature 
in  a  landscape.  And  whether  it  "points  its  airy  finger  toward  heaven"  from  amid 
the  trees,  which  in  sylvan  districts  cluster  around  the  humble  sanctuary  and  embower 
the  homes  of  rustic  worshij)pers,  or  rises  in  towering  magnificence  far  above  the  roofs 
and  domes  of  the  populous  and  busy  city,  the  spire  is  always  a  beautiful  and  appro- 
priate appendage  to  the  house  of  God. 


PLATE    XX. 

We  here  give  six  designs  for  truss-beams,  all  drawn  to  a  uniform  scale  of  8  feet  to  tlie  inch. 

Fig.  1  is  suitable  for  a  span  of  75  feet.  The  tie  and  straining  beams  are  of  double  thick- 
ness;  each  thickness  of  the  tie-beam  is  6X16  inches;  those  of  the  straining-piece  are  6X14 
inches  each.  All  of  the  truss-pieces  are  single  and  of  hard  wood ;  they  are  7X7  inches.  The 
several  thicknesses  of  which  the  straining-piece  and  tie-beam  are  composed,  are  bolted  together, 
pieces  of  hard  wood  being  notched  in  the  space  between  each  bolt.  The  vertical  bolts  are  placed 
at  equal  distances  apart,  and  when  tightened  up  should  produce  a  camber  of  3J  inches. 

Fif.  2  is  intended  for  a  span  of  GO  feet.  In  this  example  we  have  employed  the  camber- 
rod,  in  addition  to  the  struts.  The  rods  are  tightened  by  means  of  keys.  The  timbers  in  this 
truss  are  much  lighter  than  those  in  the  design  preceding.  The  tie-beams  arc  5  X  14  inches  in 
each  thickness ;  the  pieces  for  the  straining-sill  are  5  X 12  inches  each ;  and  the  several  struts  are 
6X6  inches,  formed  of  oak  or  other  hard  wood.      The  camber  in  this  span  should  be  3  inches. 

Fig.  3  is  an  example  of  a  single  thickness,  adapted  for  a  span  of  50  feet.  The  tie-beam  is 
7  X 14  inches  thick,  the  camber-beam  7  X 12  inches,  the  strut's  6X6  inches ;  and  the  camber 
produced  should  not  be  less  than  2|  inches. 

Fig.  4  is  an  example  intended  for  a  still  shorter  span.  It  may,  however,  be  easily  constructed 
for  a  span  equal  to  that  mentioned  in  the  preceding  figure,  by  increasing  the  thickness  of  the  tim- 
bers and  the  heights  of  the  trusses.  For  a  span  of  40  feet — the  distance  contemplated  in  the 
present  figure — the  timbers  will  be  as  follow :  Tie-beam,  which  is  double,  5  X 12  inches,  each 
thickness ;  camber-beams,  5  X 10  inches  each ;  struts,  5X8  inches,  of  oak,  notched  into  the 
beams  1  inch,  and  butting  with  rule-joints  against  iron  heads  and  shoes.      Camber,  2  inches. 

Fig.  5  is  a  single  truss,  composed  of  two  thicknesses,  between  which  is  inserted  another  of 
iron ;  and  is  intended  for  a  span  of  35  feet ;  each  of  the  thicknesses  is  6  X 16  inches.  Camber, 
If  inches. 

Fig.  6  is  intended  to  be  constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  the  truss  shown  on  Fig.  4 ;  and 
may  be  applied  to  a  span  of  30  feet.  The  tie-beams  arc  each  4  X 12  inches ;  the  camber-beams, 
4  X  10  inches ;  and  the  struts  4X6  inches,  notched  into  the  timbers  1  inch  each  way,  and  made 
of  hard  wood.      Camber,  IJ  inches. 

(52) 


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SPIRES;     THEIR     ORIGIN     AND     STYLE.  53 


TABLE    OF    ALTITUDES    OF    CELEBRATED    SPIRES. 


Tower. 

Old  St.  Paul's 260 

Salisbury 207 

Norwich 140 

Lichfield 114 

Chichester 

St.  Mary's,  Oxford 86 

Louth 148 

Bloxham 101 

St.  Michael's,  Coventry ;  136 

Cologne,  (as  designed) 330 

Strasburg 364 

St.  Stephen's,  Vienna 285 

TJlm,  (as  designed) 320 

Freyburg 221 

Marburg 184 

Antwerp 184 

Bayeux 142 

St.  Stephen's,  Caen 155 

St.  Peter's,        " I34 

Batalha 113 

Glasgow  .         .         .        .* 115 


Spire. 

Total  Height. 

274 

534 

197 

404 

163 

303 

138 

252 

270 

94 

180 

140 

288 

94 

195 

164 

300 

200 

530 

110 

474 

180 

465 

171 

491 

159 

380 

88 

272 

88 

366 

104 

246 

107 

262 

110 

244 

57 

170 

105 

220 

PLATE    XXI. 

We  close  tliis  department  of  our  -vrork  by  appending  to  the  various  examples  of  roofs  con- 
tained in  tlie  preceding  plates  the  accompanying  plan  and  elevation  of  a  spire  of  considerable 
altitude,  recently  erected  by  the  author  in  the  northern  portion  of  Philadelphia,  and  -which  has 
attracted  a  considerable  degree  of  attention.  Being  of  wood,  this  or  a  similar  construction  is 
capable  of  being  easily  adapted  to  almost  any  locality,  and  can  be  erected  at  a  comparatively  mode- 
rate expense.  It  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  plate  that  one-half  of  the  elevation  displays  the 
framing  and  mode  of  construction,  while  on  the  other  is  exhibited  the  finished  exterior.  The 
base  is  supported  on  sills,  whose  bearings  rest  partly  on  the  solid  masoni-y  and  partly  upon  piers 
built  specially  to  receive  them.  These,  where  they  cross,  are  locked  into  each  other  and  securely 
bolted  together.  The  eight  principal  posts  which  form  the  angles  are  morticed  into  the  sills, 
whence  they  extend  vertically  to  receive-  and  support  those  which  form  the  spire.  All  these  pieces 
are  locked  where  they  connect,  and  firmly  secured  by  bolts.  The  position  of  the  cross-ties  and 
braces  will  be  easily  comprehended  by  reference  to  the  plan,  on  which  they  are  accurately  and 
perspicuously  described.  All  the  different  timbers  and  their  connections  are  minutely  drawn,  and 
with  such  care  as  to  render  further  description  unnecessary. 

TABLE  OF  THE  SEVERAL  SCANTLINGS. 


Tie-beam,  (of  principal-rafter) 

Principal-rafter 

Camber-beam 

Braces  to  do 

Principal-posts  to  spire     .     . 
Long  braces  to  do 


10X16  inches. 

10X16       " 

10X16       " 

8X    8       " 

6X    8       " 

6X    8       " 

Bottom-sills 10X16  inches. 

Ties  or  Girts 5  X  10 

Braces  within  Sections      ...  4X8 

Spire-posts,  (at  foot  6  X  6,)  at  top  4X4 

Ties  to  do 4X6 

Braces 4X6 


(54) 


INSERT  FOLDOUT  HERE 


\ 


CARPENTRY   AND   JOINERY. 


The  term  Carpentry  is  generally  applied  to  the  art  of  employing  timbers  in  the 
construction  of  buildings. 

This  art  Is  of  such  general  and  important  use  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its 
being  of  the  highest  antiquity;  little  of  its  history,  however,  has  been  transmitted  to 
us  from  the  ancients.  Pliny  and  Vitruvius  are  almost  the  only  authors  whose  writ- 
ings on  the  subject  have  reached  modern  times;  but  as  their  observations  are  merely 
confined  to  the  choice  and  felling  of  timber,  they  are  of  no  use  as  to  the  constructive 
part,  and  only  demonstrate  that  such  an  art  existed. 

The  practice  of  carpentry  in  its  rudest  form  must  of  necessity  have  commenced 
in  the  very  earliest  ages;  for  in  the  first  attempts  at  the  construction  of  the  primitive 
buildings  of  those  days  carpentry  must  have  been  brought  into  exercise.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  the  necessity  of  introducing  the  pediment  roof  occasioned  the  first  use  of 
timber  frames,  and  consequently  the  art  of  carpentry  in  building.  The  invention  of 
the  pediment  roof  is  justly  attributed  to  the  Greeks,  as  the  oldest  buildings  of  this 
description  are  to  be  found  in  their  country;  they  also  appear  to  have  used  timber 
for  other  purposes,  as  in  the  framing  of  floors,  and  the  construction  of  rustic  buildings. 

Tn  warm  countries  furnishing  stone  or  marble,  it  is  probable  that  the  use  of  timber 
was  not  very  frequent,  and  that  it  was  confined  to  movable  articles  where  lightness 
was  an  essential  quality ;  we  must,  therefore,  not  look  to  these  climates  for  any  traces 
of  the  art. 

The  next  great  people  in  succession  of  time  to  the  Greeks,  were  the  Romans, 
who  seem  to  have  employed  timber  for  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  purposes  that  the  moderns 
are  acquainted  with.  They  not  only  constructed  their  roofs,  but  whole  buildings  of 
timber ;    in  Vitruvius  we  have  a  description  of  their  manner  of  constructing  the  archi- 

(55) 


PLATE    XXII. 

On  this  plate  are  given  a  variety  of  designs  for  framing,  bridging,  and  trussing  joists.  Fig.  1 
represents  a  girder ;  2  is  the  method  of  splicing  the  same ;  3  is  a  section  of  the  binding-joists ;  4  a 
section  of  girder ;  5.  5.  the  binding-joists  as  framed  into  the  girder ;  6.  6.  are  the  straps  or  iron 
by  which  they  are  clamped  together ;  7.  7.  are  the  sections  of  the  flooring-joists ;  8.  8.  these  as 
notched  into  the  binding-joists ;  9.  9.  are  sections  of  the  ceiling-joists ;  10.  10.  these,  as  also  notched 
to  the  binding-joists ;  11.  11.  11.  are  the  laths  nailed  on  the  sides  of  the  binding-joists,  over  which 
the  ceiling-joists  are  notched;  12  is  the  counter-ceiling,  formed  of  cross-boarding  for  the  deafen- 
ing, and  laid  upon  laths  nailed  to  the  sides  of  the  flooring-joists  3  inches  below  the  floor  line;  and 
13  is  an  isometrical  view  of  the  construction  of  a  floor  formed  of  the  several  parts  which  have 
just  been  described.  In  this  view  the  timbers  are  all  shown.  A  is  the  girder ;  B  the  binding- 
joists;  C  the  flooring-joists;  E  the  counter-flooring;  F  the  flooring;  and  G  G  the  counter-lathing, 
each  lath  of  which  is  1  inch  thick  by  3  inches  in  width,  and  placed  16  inches  apart  from  centres. 
Figs.  14  and  15  are  two  -examples  of  bridging-joists,  which  are  greatly  preferable  to  the  usual 
mode.  The  former  is  applicable  for  joists  exceeding  12  inches  in  depth,  and  has  two  tension-rods 
of  iron ;  the  latter  has  but  one  rod  which  passes  through  the  centre.  Fig.  16  shows  the  framing 
of  a  trimmer.  Fig.  17  is  a  section  of  the  main-trimmer,  showing  a  portion  of  the  cross-trimmer, 
with  the  tenon  or  key.  Fig.  18  is  a  section  of  the  cross-trimmer,  which  shows  the  framing  into 
it  of  the  tail-joists.  Fig.  19  shows  a  method  of  connecting  ti-immers  with  stirrups,  instead  of 
being  morticed  like  the  foregoing;  in  this  case  they  are  first  suflBciently  notched  to  steady  them, 
and  then  secured  to  each  other  with  joint-bolts,  as  at  Fig.  20,  which  represents  a  section  of  the 
main-trimmer,  and  shows  its  connection  with  the  cross  one.  The  examples  which  follow,  from 
Figs.  21  to  30,  inclusive,  are  diflercnt  forms  of  trussing-joists.  On  Fig.  21  the  truss  is  formed  by 
curved  laths,  which  may  be  either  secured  to  the  sides  of  a  single  joist,  as  shown  at  section  A, 
or  placed  between  a  double  joist,  as  shown  on  the  figure,  and  at  B.  Fig.  22  is  trussed  with  a 
tension-rod  or  rods,  which  may  be  similarly  applied  to  the  centre  or  sides.  Fig.  23,  in  connection 
with  C,  shows  the  former  mode ;  and  Fig.  24,  in  connection  with  D,  the  latter.  Fig.  25  is  trussed 
with  a  lath  in  three  sections.  Fig.  26  is  the  plan.  Fig.  27  is  trussed  with  an  oak  lath  in  two 
sections,  which  butt  together ;  of  this  Fig.  28  is  the  plan.  Fig.  29  is  an  example,  suited  like 
the  foregoing  to  a  short  span,  in  which  the  tension-rod  forms  the  truss.  Fig.  30  is  the  plan. 
Fig.  31  is  a  secure  and  reliable  method  of  splicing  girders ;  and  Fig.  32  is  a  method  of  inserting 
joists  which  deprives  them  of  their  leverage  upon  the  walls,  and  thus  to  a  considerable  extent 
prevents  their  liability  to  be  disintegrated  or  thrown  out  in  case  of  fire  or  other  possible  mishaps. 

(56) 


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CARPENTRY     AND     JOliNERY.  57 

traves  of  Tuscan  temples,  and  of  the  foundations  of  arched  ceihngs  and  fioors  in 
timber  work.  The  Romans  also  used  wooden  cornices.  The  theatres  and  amphi- 
theatres at  Rome,  and  in  different  parts  of  Italy,  were  at  first  constructed  of  timber. 

The  roofs  of  the  Roman  buildings  were  not  always  concealed;  the  timbers  were 
sometimes  exposed,  and  in  magnificent  buildings  they  were  gilt,  as  in  the  basilica  of 
St.  Peter,  erected  hy  Constantino;    sometimes  they  were  incrusted  with  bronze. 

Though  circumstances  require  certain  dispositions  of  timbers  in  a  building,  the 
timbers  will  still  admit  of  infinite  decoration  without  injury;  and  sometimes  so  much 
as  at  first  view  to  conceal  the  principal  use.  In  the  middle  ages  carpentry  partook 
of  the  style  of  building  called  GoiJiic;  the  roofs  were  pitched  very  high,  height  being 
one  of  the  predominant  features  of  this  species  of  architecture. 

Of  late  years  many  improvements  have  been  introduced  into  the  various  branches 
of  carpentry,  in  regard  to  simplified  and  more  scientific  modes  of  construction;  and 
the  almost  general  use,  at  least  in  this  country,  of  machinery  for  the  purposes  of 
sawing,  planing,  and  mortising;  and  for  the  manufacture  of  doors,  sashes,  etc.  In 
accuracy  and  celerity  of  execution  our  workmen  are  unequaled. 

Latterly,  the  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  both  cast  and  wrought, 
have  caused  the  introduction  of  that  material  into  buildings,  in  every  variety  of  form, 
as  girders,  beams,  etc.  The  floors,  and  sometimes  even  the  roofs  of  those  intended 
to  be  secured  from  fire,  have  been  constructed  of  iron.  The  use  of  this  material, 
however,  as  a  substitute  for  wood,  does  not  change  the  principle,  as  both  materials  are 
affected  by  the  same  gravitating  laws. 

This  important  and  useful  art,  which  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the  comforts 
and  requirements  of  man  in  every  stage  of  civilized  society,  may  be  divided  into  two 
grand  branches.  Carpentry  and  Joinery.  The  first  includes  the  larger  and  rougher 
kinds  of  work,  or  that  which  is  essential  to  the  construction  and  stability  of  an  edifice; 
and  generally  all  the  work  wherein  timber  is  valued  by  the  cubical  foot.  Joinery 
includes  all  the  interior  finishings  and  ornamental  work,  and  is  generally  valued  by 
the  superficial  foot. 

Carpentry  itself  is  properly  divided  into  three  branches,  viz..  Descriptive,  Cmv- 
strvctive,  and  Mechanical. 

Descriptive  Carpentry  is  the  art  of  forming  a  diagram  on  a  plane  by  the  rules  of 
geometry,  in  order  to  construct  any  piece  of  carpentry  of  a  known  property,  from 
certain  given  dimensions  of  the  thing  to  be  constructed.      This  is  a  necessary  qualifi- 

H 


PLATE    XXIII. 

On  this  plate  ia  represented  the  manner  of  constructing  a  bay  window.  Fig.  1  is  the  ground 
plan,  forming  in  its  outline  the  sides  of  a  half  octagon,  and  so  arranged  as  to  allow  of  the  inside 
shutters  being  folded  within  the  boxes  prepared  for  them  in  the  side-jambs.  Fig.  2  is  the  eleva- 
tion of  half  of  the  exterior.  Fig.  3  shows  similarly  the  elevation  of  the  interior,  with  the  extended 
shutter ;  and  the  moulded  architrave  which  runs  around  the  recess  which  forms  the  bay.  Fig.  4 
is  the  vertical  section. 

According  to  the  method  usually  pursued  in  the  construction  of  windows  of  this  description, 
boxes  are  formed  in  each  jamb  to  receive  the  inside  shutters,  which  are  folded  one-half  each  way. 
This  is  a  convenient  arrangement  when  the  window  is  of  such  considerable  dimensions  as  to  admit 
of  the  space  necessary  for  the  formation  of  the  angle-boxes,  without  hurting  the  proportion  of  the 
jamb.  But  when  the  window  is  of  an  ordinary  size,  averaging  from  6  to  9  feet  in  the  width  of 
the  bay,  the  method  which  we  here  present,  of  folding  the  shutters  within  the  side-boxes  only,  is 
preferable,  as  by  adopting  it  the  angle-jambs  can  be  lightened  considerably,  the  width  of  the  glass 
increased,  and  a  much  better  proportion  given  to  the  general  appearance  of  the  window.  It  is 
also  worthy  of  remark,  that  by  this  method  no  more  space  is  required  in  the  angle-jambs  than  is 
actually  necessary  for  the  formation  of  the  boxes  to  contain  the  weights,  and  even  these  can  be 
reduced  to  one  in  each  angle  by  attaching  a  pulley  to  each  weight,  in  a  way  which  will  be  found 
described  in  the  succeeding  plate,  so  that  if  the  window  be  small  the  inside  face,  or  rather  edge  of 
the  jamb,  may  be  reduced  to  the  width  of  a  single  bead.  In  other  instances  the  whole  of  the 
recess  forming  the  bay  is  shut  oiT  from  the  area  of  the  apartment  by  means  of  sliding  doors. 
When  this  method  is  adopted  sash-fasteners  only  are  used,  shutters  being  unnecessary;  the  sliding 
doors,  however,  prevent  egress  to  the  apartments  through  the  bay,  more  effectually,  perhaps,  than 
the  ordinary  inside  shutters.  The  term  oriel  is  generally  applied  to  a  bay  when  it  is  elevated 
from  the  ground,  and  supported  by  a  corbel,  or  moulded  bracketings. 

The  form  of  the  bay  prevents  the  use  of  outside  shutters.  Pivot  blinds  may  be  sometimes 
introduced  with  advantage,  especially  in  southern  houses.  They  are  neat  in  appearance,  and 
economical  of  space,  and  may  be  readily  attached  to  the  window  by  making  each  blind  in  two 
divisions  and  hinging  the  upper  of  these  to  the  side-jamb,  and  the  lower  one  to  it  at  the  meeting- 
rails  of  the  sash,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  opened  for  cleaning  when  required. 

(58) 


jp[i.5S!saaa 


>3jti.-  r-i.'-ar.  . 


CAUPENTRY     AND     JOINEUY.  59 

cation  for  those  engaged  in  the  work  of  construction,  not  only  to  enable  them  to 
anticipate  the  effect,  but  to  judge  of  the  propriety  of  the  execution  of  any  proposed 
work. 

Constructive  Carpentry  shows  the  method  of  reducing  wood  into  forms,  and  joining 
the  parts,  as  directed  by  the  rules  of  Descriptive  Carpentry,  or  by  the  laws  of  strength, 
and  thereby  forming  a  complete  design. 

Every  species  of  construction  should  be  characterized  by  staljility,  and  a  careful 
regard  to  economy  of  materials.  These  objects  can  only  be  obtained  by  judicious 
combinations  of  the  substances  used,  so  that  the  greatest  amount  of  strength  be 
secured  with  the  smallest  expenditure  of  material.  Unless  the  builder  possess  a  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  principles  of  mechanics;  unless  he  be  acquainted  with 
the  effect  of  pressure,  and  the  resisting  powers  of  different  materials,  he  cannot  com- 
prehend, much  less  design,  such  combinations ;  but  becomes  a  mere  laborer,  putting 
together  the  several  parts  of  a  work  without  knowing  their  relative  dependence  on 
each  other,  or  the  strength,  or  want  of  strength,  of  the  whole.  He  is,  indeed,  from 
the  want  of  such  knowledge  as  we  have  described,  incapable  of  judging  what  are 
the  best  forms  of  construction,  or  which  of  several  modes  of  uniting  timbers  is  the 
best.  It  is  the  province  of  Constructive  Carpentry  to  show  this,  and  the  carpenter 
wh.0  is  desirous  to  make  himself  thoroughly  acquainted  with  his  business,  should  study 
to  acquire  not  only  a  practical  knowledge  of  its  details,  but  also  some  insight  into 
the  principles  on  which  it  is  founded. 

Medmnical  Carpentry  is  that  part  of  the  art  of  construction  in  timber  which 
treats  of  the  proper  disposition  of  framing,  so  as  to  enable  it  to  resist  its  own  weight, 
or  any  additional  load  or  pressure  that  may  be  casually  laid  upon  it.  It  is  so  called 
from  the  principles  of  mechanics  being  employed  in  the  construction  of  truss-framing, 
or  other  parts  of  the  art.  The  mechanical  principles  of  a  piece  of  carpentry  are 
therefore  first  to  be  considered;  because  they  must,  in  some  measure,  regulate  the 
disposition  and  size  of  the  timbers  in  the  design  after  which  they  are  to  be  prepared 
or  formed,  according  to  the  rules  of  Constructive  Carpentry. 

Having  thus  briefly  referred  to  the  general  principles  of  carpentry,  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  few  remarks  on  the  absolute  strength  of  timber,  with  some  practical  observations 
on  wood,  given  with  a  view  to  assist  in  the  proper  choice  of  timber  as  a  material, 
may  be  of  great  use  to  the  practical  carpenter. 


PLATE    XXIV. 

We  here  show  the  construction  of  a  twin-window,  in  which  each  division  of  the  sash  on  either 
side  of  the  mullion  is  hung  to  a  single  weight,  running  within  the  centre  box.  "We  thus  dispense 
with  the  broad  jambs  required  for  the  reception  of  the  double  boxes,  when  the  usual  method  is 
employed.  According  to  the  old  plan,  each  sash  is  hung  with  a  separate  balance-weight ;  in  this 
simple  arrangement,  nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  have  the  weight  cast  of  double  dimension, 
with  a  pulley  in  the  end  upon  which  the  cord  plays,  instead  of  being  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
wcifht.  Fig.  1  is  a  horizontal  section  showing  the  inside  shutters  in  two  positions,  folded  within 
the  side-jamb,  and  extended  so  as  to  cover  the  sash;  the  manner  of  hanging  the  outside  shutters 
is  also  described  on  this  figure.  Fig.  2  exhibits  in  elevation  as  much  of  the  window  and  its  finish- 
ing as  is  necessary  to  be  shown.  Fig.  3  is  a  vertical  section  explanatory  of  portions  of  the  con- 
struction. "We  may  add,  that  in  regulating  the  movement  of  the  sash  the  weight  will  only  rise  or 
fall  to  one-half  of  the  distance  required  for  the  sash ;  and  that  this  method  may  be  employed  with 
great  advantage  in  cases  where  the  bottom  sash  is  requh-ed  to  fly  up  into  the  head,  or  in  attic 
windows,  as  the  pulley  is  thus  placed  in  a  position  where  it  is  easy  of  access,  and  immediately 
opposite  that  belonging  to  the  upper  sash. 

In  these  or  similar  cases,  the  end  of  the  cord  should  be  secured  to  a  hook  driven  within  the 
box  opposite  the  stile-pulley. 

The  letters  placed  on  the  figures  in  this  plate  will  serve,  by  using  them  as  references,  to  eluci- 
date the  more  important  parts  of  the  construction.  The  letters  AAA,  where  placed  on  both 
sections,  denote  the  walls ;  B  B,  similarly  placed,  denotes  the  top  of  outer  window-sill  on  Fig.  1, 
and  its  section  on  Fig.  2 ;  C  C  denotes  the  inside  shutter  in  its  folded  and  extended  forms  on 
Fig.  1 ;  D  D,  on  the  same  figure,  denotes  the  outside  shutter  hinged  to  the  frame ;  E  E  E,  placed 
on  each  of  the  three  figures,  denotes  in  difierent  positions  the  upper  sash,  as  hung  within  the  frame ; 
F  F  F,  similarly  disti-ibuted,  denotes  in  the  same  manner  the  lower  sash ;  I,  where  placed  on  the 
elevation,  denotes  the  vertical  section  of  the  centre  box,  which  shows  _two  of  the  sash-weights  and 
the  parting-shps ;  and  G  G  G  denotes  the  moulded  architrave,  both  in  section  and  in  elevation ; 
II  H  n  II  II  II,  distributed  on  Figs.  1  and  2,  denotes  the  sash-weights  within  their  boxes,  and  the 
manner  of  attaching  them  to  the  cord. 

(60) 


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CARPENTRY    AND    JOINERY. 


61 


OF    THE    ABSOLUTE    STRENGTH    OF    TIMBER. 

•  The  strain  occasioned  by  pulling  timber  in  the  direction  of  its  length  is  called 
tension;   it  frequently  occurs  in  roofs,  and  is  therefore  worthy  of  consideration. 

The  absolute  strength  of  a  fibre,  or  small  thread  of  timber,  is  the  force  by  which 
every  part  of  it  is  held  together,  which  is  equal  to  the  force  that  would  be  required 
to  pull  it  asunder;  and  the  force  which  would  be  required  to  tear  any  number  of 
threads  asunder  is  proportional  to  that  of  their  sum;  but  the  areas  of  the  sections 
of  two  pieces  of  timber  composed  of  fibres  of  the  same  kinds,  are  as  the  number  of 
fibres  in  each ;  and,  therefore,  the  strength  of  the  timber  is  as  the  area  of  the  sections. 

Hence  all  prismatic  bodies  are  equally  strong;  that  is,  they  will  not  break  in 
one  part  rather  than  in  another. 

Bodies  which  have  unequal  sections  will  break  at  their  smallest  part;  and,  there- 
fore, if  the  absolute  strength  which  would  be  required  to  tear  a  square  inch  of  each 
kind  of  timber  be  known,  we  shall  be  able  to  determine  the  strength  of  any  other 
quantity  whatever. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  reliable  experiments,  shows  the  absolute  strength 
of  a  square  inch  of  various  descriptions  of  timber : — 


Locust-tree 20-100  pounds. 

Beech-oak 17-300 

Orange 15-500 

Alder 13-900      " 

Elm 13-200       " 

Mulberry 12-500 

WiUow 12-500       " 

Ash 12-000       " 

Plum 11-800 

Elder 10000 


Pomegranate 9 

Lemon 2 

Tamarind 8 

Fir 8 

Walnut 8 

Pitch-pine 7 

Quince 6 

Cypress 6 

Poplar 5 

Cedar  ........  4 


750  pounds. 

950 

750 

330 

130 

650 

750 

000 

500 

880 


PLATE    XXV. 

Represents  the  method  employed  in  the  construction  of  a  window  with  sliding  shutters,  which  in  this 
example  arc  substituted  for  the  ordinary  covering.  Fig.  1  is  a  plan  of  the  entire  construction. 
Fig.  2  is  the  elevation,  showing  on  the  interior  one-half  of  the  drawn  shutter,  and  on  the  exterior 
the  corresponding  portion  of  the  window.  Fig.  3  is  a  vertical  section,  explanatory  of  the  preceding 
figure.  Fig.  4  is  a  plan  of  one  side  of  the  construction,  which  is  rendered  more  distinct  by  the 
aid  of  an  enlarged  scale;  and  Fig.  5  is  its  vertical  section.  Fig.  6  shows  a  portion  of  the  inside 
elevation;  and  Fig.  7  is  a  section  of  the  shutters  and  the  centre-bar,  taken  at  the  division  and 
drawn  to  the  full  size. 

This  may,  perhaps,  be  esteemed  the  most  secure  and  reliable  method  of  closing  a  window.  It 
is  necessary  to  make  sliding  shutters,  or  at  least  the  outer  frame-work,  of  two-inch  plank,  in  order 
to  afford  a  thickness  sufScient  to  insure  permanency  to  the  sheaves,  and  strength  and  firmness  to  the 
bar,  which  forms  the  way  for  the  upper  division,  as  well  as  the  guide  for  the  lower.  This  may  be 
discerned  by  a  reference  to  Fig.  7,  on  which  is  also  represented  a  plate  of  iron,  let  into  the  groove 
at  each  end  to  prevent  the  wearing  of  the  wood.  The  flanges  of  the  bar  or  way  are  rounded,  so 
as  to  form  the  centre-bead  at  the  division  of  the  shutters.  The  lower  section  will  likewise  require 
to  have  a  way  with  the  usual  side-plate,  set  in  flush  and  screwed  fast  to  the  sill.  The  centre-bar 
is  usually  made  in  three  sections ;  the  middle  of  which  crosses  the  window,  and  is  secured  to  those 
within  the  side-grooves  by  means  of  a  slip  and  lap,  so  that  it  can  be  taken  off  at  pleasure.  The 
flanges  of  the  side-sections  project  beyond  the  shutters  on  either  face,  in  order  to  give  them  a 
bearing  in  grooves,  which  are  cut  in  the  sides  of  the  cavities  which  receive  the  shutters.  If 
arranged  in  this  manner  the  sections  may  be  taken  out  separately,  if  necessary;  that  in  the  centre 
should  be  of  brass ;  those  at  the  sides  of  iron.  Shutters  of  this  description  may  be  readily  made 
of  two  thicknesses,  (except  the  stiles  and  rails,)  and  plates  of  sheet-iron  inserted  between  the  thick- 
nesses ;   thus  forming  a  perfect  safeguard  against  the  operations  of  burglars. 

(62) 


Fi-S,/ 


CARPENTRY    AND    JOINERY.  63 


PRACTICAL    OBSERVATIONS    ON    WOOD. 

1.  The  wood  immediately  surrounding  the  pith,  or  heart,  is  the  weakest;  and 
its  inferiority  is  so  much  the  more  remarkable  as  the  tree  is  older.  It  is  certain, 
from  experiments  on  large  oaks  and  pines,  that  the  heart  is  much  weaker  than  the 
exterior  parts. 

2.  The  wood  next  to  the  bark,  commonly  called  sap,  or  wliite,  is  also  weaker 
than  the  rest;  and  the  wood  gradually  increases  in  strength  as  we  recede  from  the 
centre  to  the  sap. 

3.  The  wood  is  stronger  in  the  middle  of  the  trunk  than  at  the  springing  of  the 
branches,  or  at  the  root ;  and  the  wood  of  the  branches  is  weaker  than  that  of  the  trunk. 

4.  The  wood  on  the  north  side  of  trees  is  the  weakest,  and  that  on  the  south 
side  the  strongest;  and  the  difference  is  most  remarkable  in  such  as  grow  singly. 
The  heart  of  a  tree  is  never  in  its  centre,  but  always  nearer  to  the  north  side,  and 
the  annual  coats  of  wood  are  thinner  on  that  side.  In  conformity  to  this,  it  is  a 
general  opinion  of  carpenters  that  the  timber  is  strongest  whose  annual  plates  are 
thickest. 

5.  All  woods  are  more  tenacious  while  green,  and  lose  very  considerably  by  drying 
after  the  tree  is  felled. 

Joinery,  the  other  grand  division  of  general  carpentry,  is  the  art  of  framing  or 
joining  wood  together  for  internal  and  external  finishings  of  houses ;  thus  the  cover- 
ings and  linings  of  rough  walls,  or  the  coverings  of  rough  timbers,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  doors,  windows,  and  stairs,  are  joiners'  work. 

Joinery  requires  much  more  accurate  and  nice  workmanship  than  carpentry;  the 
latter  consists  only  of  rough  timbers,  used  in  supporting  the  various  parts  of  an  edifice ; 
joinery  is  therefore  used  by  way  of  decoration,  and  being  always  near  to  the  eye  and 
consequently  liable  to  inspection,  requires  that  the  joints  should  be  fitted  together 
with  the  utmost  care,  and  the  surfaces  made  smooth. 

In  no  art  or  business  has  greater  changes  taken  effect  within  the  last  few  years 
than  in  this  particular  branch  of  mechanical  employment.  Appliances  once  thought 
the  most  perfect  of  their  respective  kinds  have  been  superseded;  old  terms  have 
become  obsolete;    while  modern  invention  has  simplified   labor  and  led   to  the  intro- 


PLATE    XXVI. 

Exhibits  a  metliod  of  constructing  sliding  doors,  in  which  the  sheaves  and  ways  are  placed  at  the 
top,  thus  leaving  the  floor  entirely  clear  of  obstructions,  and  obviating  the  necessity  which  exists  for 
separating  the  carpets  between  the  apartments,  when  the  sheaves  and  ways  are  placed  at  the  bottom 
as  in  the  method  usually  employed. 

Fig.  1  is  the  ground  plan  of  this  construction,  on  which  is  described  the  connection  with  the 
partitions.  The  half  marked  A  displays  the  crank  and  lever  for  shifting  the  bar  at  the  top;  and 
that  marked  B  is  the  plan  at  the  floor.  Fig.  2  shows  the  elevation  of  the  doors ;  also  at  C  a 
portion  of  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  on  the  opposite  side,  at  D,  the  naked  studding.  E,  where 
placed  above  the  doors,  denotes  the  truss-framing  of  the  partition ;  and  F  F  the  sheaves  upon  the  bar 
as  they  appear  when  the  doors  are  closed.  The  cavities  formed  within  the  partitions  to  receive 
the  doors  are  boarded  between  the  studs,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  A  and  B.  Fig.  3  is  a 
vertical  section  of  the  elevation.  Fig.  4  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  head,  drawn  to  a  large 
scale.  Fig.  5  is  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  head,  drawn  to  a  similar  scale,  which  shows  on  its 
under  portion  at  C  the  crank  and  bar.  Fig.  6  is  a  section  showing  the  bar  or  way  at  I ;  the 
side-plate  as  secured  to  the  door  at  H ;  and  the  sheave  at  K.  In  connection  with  this  figure  we 
must  again  refer  to  Figs.  4  and  5,  in  order  to  make  our  description  more  intelligible.  L,  where 
shown  on  Fig.  5,  is  a  section  of  Fig.  C ;  and  the  M  placed  immediately  beneath,  denotes  that  of  the 
door,  as  secured  by  the  plate  to  which  the  sheave  is  attached.  K,  on  this  figure,  denotes  the 
sheave.  By  this  arrangement,  the  movement  of  the  cranks  is  regulated  by  the  lever,  until  the  way 
becomes  central  in  the  cavity,  when  the  flange  described  at  0  0  enters  the  groove,  as  shown  at  P 
on  Fig.  4,  and  by  the  dotted  line  at  R  and  G  on  Fig.  5.  In  this  manner  the  way  is  held  firm  in 
its  position  by  the  flange  opposite  to  the  plate  by  which  the  door  is  suspended,  which  also  aflbrds 
to  it  a  bearing  along  its  whole  length. 

(G4) 


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C  A  R  P  E  N  T  R  Y     A  N  D     .1  O  I  N  E  R  Y.  65 

duction  and  employment  of  suitable  machinery  in  departments  formerly  intrusted  to 
the  most  expert  and  careful  artizans. 

In  many  European  countries  old  methods  still  prevail,  in  others  the  spirit  of 
improvement  in  joinery  is  more  or  less  discernible;  while  with  us  its  development  has 
kept  pace  with  the  rapid  strides  which  the  country  is  making  in  almost  every  other 
branch  of  art  and  scientific  discovery,  and  manifests  itself  in  nearly  everything  which 
pertains  to  the  modus  operandi  of  general  carpentry.  It  must  not,  however,  be 
inferred,  that  because  of  modern  ingenuity  and  invention  there  is  less  need  of  care 
and  skill  in  our  workmen  now  than  formerly.  On  the  contrary,  owing  to  the  higher 
degree  of  finish  and  embellishment  generally  bestowed  upon  our  structures,  there  is  an 
increased  necessity  for  the  exercise  of  taste  and  circumspection  in  every  branch  of 
joinery. 

In  order  to  keep  pace  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  every  intelligent  mechanic,  who 
aims  at  being  thorough  in  the  practice  of  his  profession,  should  make  himself  acquainted 
with  its  principles,  should  closely  scan  and  well  consider  every  new  invention  which 
claims  to  efiect  an  improvement  in  their  application ;  and,  above  all,  should  endeavor 
to  attain  such  a  knowledge  of  geometrical  lines  and  construction  as  will  enable  him 
to  understand  with  facility  the  several  drawings  given  him  from  time  to  time  for  his 
guidance. 

To  the  minor  tools  and  materials  used  in  joinery  we  need  not  refer.  These  are 
well  known  to  almost  every  one  who  has  had  even  moderate  experience  in  joinery 
or  its  uses.  And  in  fact,  the  improvements  to  which  we  have  referred  have  led  to 
such  changes  in  their  preparation  and  application  as  would  lead  us,  did  we  touch  on 
them  at  all,  into  descriptions  much  more  lengthened  than  the  limits  at  our  disposal 
would  afibrd. 

On  the  character  and  finish  of  a  joiner's  work  depend  much  of  the  appearance 
of  a  building,  and  no  exertions  should  be  spared  in  the  endeavor  to  perfect  it  in  a 
neat  and  tasteful  manner;  for  no  matter  how  much  strength  and  accuracy  may  be 
consulted  in  the  several  joints,  if  the  finishing  be  disregarded,  elegance  can  never  be 
obtained.  When  a  joiner  works  in  the  harder  and  more  costly  descriptions  of  wood, 
such  as  walnut,  oak,  or  mahogany,  his  main  object  should  be  to  obtain  a  perfectly 
smooth  and  even  surface.  Too  much  pains  cannot  be  taken  in  the  finer  descriptions 
of  joiners'  work :  glue,  where  it  oozes  on  the  outer  surface,  should  be  nicely  removed ; 
the  joints    should    be   carefully  leveled;    and   the  use  of   a   smooth   scraper  and   fine 

I 


PLATE    XXVII. 

On  this  plate  are  given  four  different  designs  for  folding  doors.  Of  these,  Figs.  1  and  2  are 
best  adapted  for  vestibules.  The  example  on  Fig.  1  is  two  panels  in  height,  the  upper  of  which 
are  intended  to  be  filled  with  plate-glass  of  at  least  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  door 
will  be  double-faced,  with  similar  mouldings  on  both  sides.  The  inner  mouldings  which  surround 
the  fillets  project  from  their  face,  flush  to  that  of  the  stiles  and  rails ;  the  outer  ones,  which  are  of 
smaller  dimensions,  are  also  flush  with  the  stiles,  etc.,  thus  leaving  a  surface  free  of  projections, 
which  is  necessary,  in  cases  where  the  doors  are  made  to  slide.  This  arrangement  of  the  mould- 
ings, however,  is  not  desirable  when  the  doors  are  not  intended  to  be  of  this  description.  In  other 
cases,  the  centre  mouldings  should  have  a  suitable  projection,  thus  adding  much  to  the  appearance 
of  the  door,  and  giving  to  the  finishing  a  bold  and  increased  efi"ect.  The  other  example  on  Fig.  2 
is  also  intended  for  glass  panels,  for  which,  however,  wood  may  be  substituted,  if  deemed  more 
suitable.  This  door  is  almost  similar  to  the  preceding,  the  only  point  of  difference  being  in  the 
form  of  the  corners  of  the  panels.  The  mouldings  may  be  treated  in  either  of  the  methods  alluded 
to  above,  as  circumstances  may  determine. 

Fig.  3  is  well  adapted  for  an  outer  door.  It  has  three  panels  in  each  fold.  In  form  and 
finishing  the  mouldings  resemble  those  in  Fig.  1,  with  the  exception  that  the  frieze-panel  is  here 
introduced.  When  doors  of  this  description  are  intended  to  be  used  in  important  buildings,  they 
should  be  framed  in  two  thicknesses  and  screwed  together.  If  it  be  desirable,  sheet-iron  may  be 
inserted  between  the  thicknesses  of  the  panels  and  fillets,  or  made  to  cover  the  entii-e  surface. 
When  the  iron  is  not  introduced,  a  single  thickness  will  be  suflicient  for  the  panels  and  fillets, 
but  the  latter  in  either  case  should  be  framed. 

Fig.  4  is  an  example  of  two  panels  in  height;  the  upper  of  these  being  made  circular  at  the 
top.  The  character  of  this  form  is  also  appropriate  for  an  exterior  finish.  It  is  equally  well 
adapted  for  vestibule  and  other  interior  doors.  None  of  the  foregoing  examples  can  in  any 
instance  be  less  than  one  inch  and  three-quarters  in  thickness,  if  made  double-faced. 

(60) 


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CARPENTRY    AND    JOINERY.  67 

glass-paper  is  in  many  instances  necessary,  more  especially  when  the  wood  is  intended 
to  be  left  in  its  natural  color  for  the  purpose  of  being  afterwards  polished  with  wax, 
or  varnished. 

When  work  is  intended  to  be  grained  in  imitation  of  any  particular  kind  of  wood 
— a  process  now  in  very  extensive  use — great  pains  should  be  taken  in  its  preparation. 
In  more  than  one  case  which  has  recently  come  under  the  author's  cognizance,  the 
interior  wood-work  of  all  the  principal  apartments  of  a  residence  has  been  left  in 
its  natural  colors,  and  afterwards  coated  with  preparations  of  varnish  calculated  to 
bring  out  the  grain  and  enhance  the  appearance  of  the  various  woods.  In  many 
descriptions  of  wood  this  process  of  varnishing  over  the  natural  ligneous  color  has  a 
very  pleasing  effect.  A  whole  suite  of  apartments  may  be  finished  in  this  manner, 
each  with  a  different  wood, — the  doors  of  the  several  rooms  alone  being  uniform,  as 
these  are  generally  made  of  darker  and  heavier  material.  The  choice  of  particular 
descriptions  of  wood  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  location  of  the  dwell- 
ing in  which  they  are  intended  to  be  used.  Some  species  of  timber  are  indigenous, 
and  can,  of  course,  in  particular  cases,  be  more  readily  obtained  than  others.  We 
may  instance  some  woods  within  the  scope  of  our  own  immediate  practice,  which, 
when  arranged  and  varnished  in  the  way  we  have  mentioned,  produce  a  very  pleasing 
and  pretty  effect,  viz.,  cotton-wood,  chma-wood,  maple,  ash,  cherry,  beech,  poplar,  and 
yellow-pine;  not  to  mention  walnut,  oak,  and  mahogany,  which  have  been  previously 
treated  m  this  manner.  In  the  internal  finishing  of  the  higher  class  of  buildings, 
the  aid  of  turning  has  been  made  extensively  available.  By  this  means,  ornaments 
of  varied  description,  and  balusters  to  stairs,  galleries,  etc.,  of  peculiar  merit,  have 
been  produced.  They  possess  almost  every  conceivable  advantage  over  those  formerly 
in  use,  both  in  regard  to  the  beauty  of  their  design  and  workmanship,  and  the  -variety 
of  their  forms.  Carving  also  lends  its  aid  in  the  work  of  embellishment,  and  is 
rapidly  growing  into  favor.  Formerly  it  was  little  used  in  consequence  of  the  expense. 
But  now,  when  almost  palatial  residences,  costly  stores,  and  magnificent  churches  are 
springing  up  around  us,  and  meet  the  eye  at  almost  every  turn,  the  use  of  this  beau- 
tiful decorative  art  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  An  improved  kind  of  marquetry,  or 
curious  inlaid  work,  composed  of  pieces  of  hard  fine  wood,  arranged  in  various  forms, 
and  woven  as  it  were  into  each  other,  has  recently  been  patented  and  introduced. 

In  particular  cases  it  makes  an  admirable  substitute  for  common  flooring.  It  is 
well   adapted   for  use  in  vestibules,  libraries,  picture-galleries,  and  large  apartments  in 


PLATE    XXVIII. 

Six  designs  are  here  presented  for  single  doors,  the  upper  panels  of  the  first  three  of  which 
are  intended  to  be  filled  with  plate-glass,  which  may  be  either  stained  or  enameled.  Fig.  1  may 
be  easily  adapted  to  vestibules  in  narrow  passages,  in  cases  where  single  doors  are  most  desirable. 
The  panels  below  the  lock-rail  are  moulded  with  a  plain  fillet.  Fig.  2  is  an  example  in  the 
Gothic  style.  When  a  door  of  this  description  is  intended  to  be  double-faced,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  thickness  should  be  at  least  two  inches,  in  order  to  obtain  sufficient  depth  for  the  sinking  of 
the  mouldings.  Fig.  3,  like  both  of  the  preceding  examples,  is  intended  to  be  employed  in 
vestibules. 

The  three  remaining  examples  are  designed  for  exterior  doors.  Of  these.  Fig.  4  is  made  with 
frieze-panels  above.  All  the  panels  have  mouldpd  fillets,  which  project  from  their  face,  and  finish 
flush  with  the  outer  surface.  As  used  for  external  finish,  the  outer  mouldings  should  have  suitable 
projection,  so  as  to  overlap  the  stiles  and  rails.  This  gives  a  better  effect  to  the  finish,  and  bold- 
ness and  character  to  the  mouldings. 

The  method  usually  pursued  in  finishing  the  inner  side  of  doors,  such  as  we  have  reference 
to,  consists  in  making  the  face  of  the  panels  flush  with  the  stiles.  This  is  technically  termed 
finishing  with  "bead  and  flush,"  or  "bead  and  butt."  These  merely  differ  in  the  manner  of 
beading  the  joint  around  the  panels,  as  according  to  the  former  the  bead  is  mitred  at  the  corners, 
while  in  the  latter  mode  the  beads  butt  against  each  other.  This  form  of  finish  gives  increased 
thickness,  and  greater  solidity  and  firmness  to  the  panels,  than  if  they  were  moulded  on  both  faces. 

Fig.  5  is  a  Gothic  example,  square  in  its  outline;  the  filling  in  of  the  panels  are  in  keeping 
with  the  style.  This  form  is  appropriate  for  external  finish,  in  a  Gothic  edifice,  when  head-lights 
are  requisite.  When  thus  used,  the  contour  pecuhar  to  the  style  should  be  formed  by  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  head-light,  in  connection  with  the  square  outline  of  the  door.  If,  as  intended, 
this  example  be  applied  externally,  and  made  double-faced,  it  will  requii-e  to  be  fully  two  and  a 
half  inches  thick,  with  the  stiles  and  rails  in  two  thicknesses,  and  screwed  together.  Fig.  6  is 
also  adapted  for  external  use.  The  panels  are  finished  and  moulded  on  both  sides,  and  those 
above  have  circular  tops. 

(68) 


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CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY.  69 

which,  owing  to  their  great  extent,  or  the  paucity  of  furniture,  an  increased  effect 
on  the  walls,  ceiling,  or  floor,  is  desirable.  Brackets  and  scrolls  of  unique  form  and 
beautiful  finish  are  also  turned  from  the  saw,  ready,  without  further  elaboration,  to 
occupy  the  positions  for  which  they  were  designed. 

The  foregoing  are  but  a  few  of  the  most  noticeable  imj^rovenients  which  have  of 
late  years  been  introduced  into  what,  taken  as  a  whole,  may  not  inaptly  be  termed 
Ornamental  Joinery.  It  would  be  impossible  for  us,  in  our  present  limits,  to  particu- 
larize any  further,  or  to  specify  the  minor  arts  and  inventions  which  the  teeming 
brain  of  industry  brings  forth  from  day  to  day,  to  improve  and  simplify  its  work. 

The  application  of  steam  machinery  to  sawing,  planing,  and  mortising,  and  for 
the  manufacture  of  mouldings,  sash,  and  doors,  may  be  incddentally  mentioned,  as 
having  tended  to  the  introduction  of  essential  changes  in  the  practice  of  joinery. 

We  think  we  have  said  enough  in  the  preceding  observations  to  make  it  apparent 
that  in  no  former  time  were  taste,  neatness,  and  intelligence  more  requisite  qualifica- 
tions in  our  artizans  than  in  the  present.  No  abstract  rules  will  teach  a  man  his 
business.  Close  study  and  intelligent  observation  are  necessary.  He  who  aims  at 
excellence  must  make  himself  conversant  with  the  principles  on  which  his  art  is 
founded. 


PLATE    XXIX. 

This  plate  contains  six  examples  of  different  forms  of  doors,  all  adapted  for  interior  finish. 

Fig.  1  is  a  six-panel  door,  in  which  the  panels  are  equally  divided,  and  single-moulded.  These 
need  not  be  made  more  than  one  and  a  half  inches  in  thickness;  and  if  made  single-faced,  with 
raised  or  flush  panels  on  the  inner  side,  may  be  still  further  reduced  to  one  and  a  quarter  inches. 
Fig.  2  is  a  foui'-pancl  door  of  almost  similar  construction,  having  a  broad  centre,  or,  as  it  is  more 
usually  termed,  lock-rail.  Fig.  3  is  another  description  of  six-panel  door,  with  frieze-panels  in 
the  centre ;  those  above  have  circular  tops.  Fig.  4  is  an  eight-panel  door,  those  in  the  centre 
and  at  the  top  being  of  the  form  termed  frieze.  Fig.  5  is  six-paneled,  with  frieze-panels  at  the 
top.      Fig.  6  is  another  example  of  the  six-paneled  form,  with  frieze-panels  in  the  centre. 

For  the  general  information  of  the  reader,  we  insert  the  method  necessary  to  be  employed  in 
order  to  determine  the  widths  of  the  panels,  stiles,  and  rails,  in  doors  of  this  description: — 

Divide  the  entire  width  of  the  door  into  seven  equal  parts,  and  of  these  give  two  to  the 
breadth  of  each  panel,  and  one  part  to  the  width  of  each  of  the  stiles.  The  width  of  the  upper 
rails  should  always  equal  that  of  the  stiles ;  the  width  of  the  bottom  rail  is  usually  made  twice 
the  width  of  the  stiles,  or  equal  to  two  of  the  given  parts.  The  width  of  the  lock-rail  varies 
according  to  the  description  of  the  panels  used ;  but  where  there  is  no  frieze-paneling,  it  is 
generally  made  equal  in  width  to  two  of  the  stiles. 

To  find  the  proportion  of  the  frieze-panel: — Divide  the  space  between  the  stile  and  munton 
into  seven  equal  parts,  of  which  five  given  vertically  to  the  panel  will  form  its  height.  The  divi- 
sion of  the  parts  is  marked  on  Fig.  4. 

For  further  explanation  in  regard  to  the  forms  and  application  of  mouldings  and  fillets,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Plate  LXVI.,  on  which  will  be  found  a  variety  of  these  forms,  all  drawn 
carefully  to  a  scale  of  one-half  the  full  size. 

(70) 


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B.o&eiLrl).d"li"LidiPl«la 


THE  FIYE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Having  in  the  preceding  pages  explained  and  illustrated  several  of  the  most 
important  and  useful  branches  connected  with  Constructive  Architecture,  the  next 
division  of  our  work  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  those  great  creations  of  the 
ancients  which  have  never  been  added  to  or  excelled — the  Five  Orders. 

The  examples  we  have  chosen  are  the  best  and  most  celebrated  of  their  respective 
kinds,  arranged  with  care,  and  accompanied  by  such  plain  yet  minute  descriptions  as 
will  serve  clearly  to  elucidate  the  principles  of  the  different  orders,  and  thus  make 
the  distribution  and  proportions  of  their  several  parts  and  members  easily  apparent. 

In  the  fulfilment  of  our  task  we  have  exercised  great  care.  Our  principal  object 
has  been  so  to  simplify  the  arrangement  and  description  of  the  orders  as  to  present 
them  in  the  plainest  and  most  intelligible  form.  We  have  culled  the  best  examples, 
consulted  the  most  reliable  authorities,  and  availed  ourselves  generally  of  the  mate- 
rials placed  at  our  disposal  by  those  whose  researches  in  this  field  have  rendered 
them  eminent. 

Our  first  examples  are  Grecian.  The  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  were  the  only 
orders  used  by  the  Greeks.  The  Tuscan  and  Composite  were  used  only  in  Italy; 
the  first  more  rude,  the  latter  more  ornate,  than  the  Greek  orders,  which  occupied  a 
middle  rank.  To  attain  a  proper  knowledge  of  the  true  principles  of  Architecture, 
the  student  should  devote  his  most  careful  attention  to  the  study  of  the  three  Grecian 
orders,  as  in  them  these  principles  are  faithfully  portrayed. 

The  first  Grecian  order  in  point  of  antiquity  is  the  Doric,  so  called  from  the 
Dores,  a  small  tribe  in  Greece ;  or,  as  others  say,  from  Dorus,  an  Achaian  chief,  who 
first  employed  the  order  in  erecting  a  temple  to  Juno,  at  Argos. 

Our  first  plate  contains  an  example  of  the  Grecian  Doric,  taken  from  the  Temple 
of  Theseus,  at  Athens. 

(71) 


PLATE    XXX. 

THE    PRINCIPAL    PARTS    OF    THE    GRECIAN    DORIC    ORDER. 

Any  altitude  being  proposed  for  this  whole  order,  make  the  lower  diameter  of  the  shaft  of  the 
column  one-eighth  of  the  entire  height  of  the  order ;  divide  the  diameter  of  the  column  into  two 
equal  parts,  then  one  of  these  parts  will  be  a  module;  divide  the  module  into  thirty  equal  parts, 
and  each  of  these  parts  will  be  a  minute.  Make  the  height  of  the  column  twelve  modules,  and 
tliat  of  the  capital  one  module.  Divide  the  height  of  the  capital  into  five  equal  parts ;  and  of 
these,  give  one  to  the  neck,  and  two  to  the  annulets  and  echinus ;  make  the  annulets  one-quarter 
of  the  echinus,  and  give  the  remaining  two  parts  to  the  abacus.  Make  the  upper  diameter  of  the 
shaft  three-quarters  of  its  lower  diameter,  and  the  length  of  each  side  of  the  abacus  two  modules 
and  twelve  minutes.  The  height  of  the  entablature  is  four  modules,  of  which  the  cornice  has  one 
module,  and  the  frieze  and  architrave  each  forty-five  minutes.  Again  divide  the  height  of  the 
frieze  into  eight  parts,  giving  the  upper  one  to  the  capital  of  the  triglyph,  and  the  three  lower 
to  the  channels.  Make  the  inner  edge  of  the  angle  triglyph  directly  over  the  axis  of  the  column; 
its  breadth  should  be  twenty-eight  minutes ;  and  the  distance  between  the  intermediate  triglyphs 
should  be  equal  to  the  height  of  the  frieze,  and  their  position  directly  over  the  centres  of  the 
columns.  Make  the  tenia  or  upper  fillet  one-tenth  of  the  height  of  the  architrave,  and  the 
regula,  together  with  the  drops,  equal  in  height  to  the  tenia.  The  height  of  the  cornice  being 
one  module,  give  to  the  small  bead  on  its  lower  part  one  minute,  and  to  the  height  of  the  mutules 
and  gutt£C,  four  minutes  and  a  half.  The  length  of  the  mutules  equals  the  breadth  of  the 
triglyphs,  and  their  projection  beyond  the  triglyphs  extends  to  two-thirds  of  their  length.  These 
should  be  placed  directly  over  the  centres  of  the  triglyphs  and  in  the  middle  of  the  metopes  or 
intermediate  spaces.  The  fillet  above  the  mutules,  which  is  one  and  a'  half  minutes  high,  projects 
beyond  the  mutule  half  a  minute.  Make  the  height  of  the  corona  ten  minutes,  and  its  projection 
beyond  the  fillet  one  minute ;  the  height  of  the  small  echinus  is  one  minute  and  a  quarter ;  and 
over  it  comes  a  fillet  of  the  same  height.  Over  this  fillet  make  another  echinus  six  minutes  and 
a  half  high,  and  two  minutes  will  remain  for  the  height  of  the  fillet  above  the  echinus.  The 
opposite  example  is  taken  from  one  of  the  most  celebrated  buildings  now  remaining  of  this 
order.  The  module  is  divided  into  thirty  parts  or  minutes ;  the  measures  are  all  numbered  in 
these  parts;  the  projections  are  reckoned  from  a  line  representing  the  axis  of  the  column,  and  are 
figured  at  the  extremities  of  each  member. 

(72) 


THE     FIVE    ORDERS     OE     ARCHITECTURE.  73 


THE    GRECIAN    IONIC    OllDEK. 

GENERAL    REMARKS. 

It  may  be  observed  in  the  general  definition  of  the  orders,  that  every  order  con- 
sists of  a  column  and  an  entablature;  that  every  column  consists  of  a  shaft,  base, 
and  capital,  except  in  the  Doric,  where  the  base  is  omitted ;  that  every  entablature 
consists  of  an  architrave,  a  frieze,  and  a  cornice;  that  the  base,  shaft,  capital,  archi- 
trave, frieze,  and  cornice,  are  the  principal  members  of  an  order;  and  that  the  pecu- 
liar mode  or  form  of  the  members  determines  the  particular  name  of  the  order. 

But  since  many  of  the  mouldings  are  common  to  all  the  orders,  and  are  gene- 
rated in  a  similar  manner,  what  has  been  said  on  the  Doric  order  will  render  it 
unnecessary  to  repeat  the  same  things  in  the  Ionic,  as  such  mouldings  cannot  form 
a  distinctive  feature  of  any  particular  order.  The  subjoined  definitions  show  how 
these  members  ought  to  be  modified  so  that  they  may  constitute  the  Ionic  order. 

DEFINITIONS. 

1.  K  from  the  under  side  of  the  abacus  of  an  order  there  project  two  or  more 
spirals  on  each  end  of  the  front,  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  frieze,  so  that  the  extremity 
of  each  shall  be  at  the  same  distance  from  the  axis  of  the  column,  and  also  two 
others  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  abacus,  parallel  to  the  former  and  projecting 
the  same  distance  from  the  axis  of  the  column,  so  that  each  of  the  spirals  shall 
have  the  same  number  of  revolutions,  and  equal  and  similar  to  each  other,  the  pro- 
jecting part  contained  between  any  two  spirals  is  called  a  volute. 

2.  An  order  which  has  volutes  and  mouldings  in  the  capital  of  the  annular 
kind,  and  the  ichnography  of  the  abacus  square,  as  in  the  Doric  order,  the  archi- 
trave finishing  of  plain  facia,  and  mouldings  either  plain  or  enriched,  the  frieze  a 
plain  surface,  the  cornice  consisting  of  a  cyma  recta,  then  a  fillet,  and  an  echinus 
only;  and  if  to  the  under  side  of  the  corona  are  hung  a  row  of  equal  and  similar 
parallelopipeds,  equidistant  from  each  other,  whose  fronts  are  in  a  plane  parallel  to 
that  of  the  frieze,  then  each  of  these  is  called  a  dentil. 

3.  An  order  so  constructed  is  similar  to  that  invented  by  the  lonians,  and,  con- 
sequently, is  the  Ionic  order. 


PLATE    XXXI. 

FROM    THE    TEMPLE    OF    BACCHUS    AT    TEOS,    IN    IONIA. 

This  temple  was  first  begun  of  tlie  Doric  order  by  Hermogenus;  but  afterwards  lie  changed 
it  into  that  of  the  Ionic,  and  dedicated  it  to  Bacchus. 

This  example  is  drawn  from  the  accurate  measurements,  as  taken  from  that  celebrated  building. 
The  dentils  in  the  cornice  add  greatly  to  the  character  of  the  order. 

Of  the  elevation  of  the  order,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  measurements  of  the  parts  marked 
by  letters  have  been  supplied  by  conjecture,  as  no  remains  of  the  originals  could  be  found. 

It  is  thought  by  some,  from  the  little  differences  which  exist  between  the  shaft  at  the  base 
and  the  portion  of  it  immediately  under  the  capital,  that  the  base  which  is  here  exhibited  in  con- 
nection with  the  shaft,  did  not  occupy  that  position  in  the  original  order,  but  rather  belonged  to 
some  of  the  interior  columns.  This  supposition  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  the  ancients 
always  made  their  interior  ranges  of  columns  less  in  diameter  than  those  on  the  exterior,  as  in  the 
Temple  of  Minerva,  the  Propylea,  and  other  celebrated  Athenian  buildings. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  form  of  base  shown,  which  is  termed  the  Attic,  seems  to  have  been  the 
most  favorite  one  among  the  ancients,  as  it  is  also  among  the  moderns.  It  is  not  so  heavy  as 
that  termed  the  Ionic;    its  contour  is  pleasing,  and  in  general  appearance  elegant. 

In  this  example,  the  channel  connecting  the  two  volutes  is  not  formed  with  a  border  on  the 
lower  edge,  but  is  terminated  with  a  horizontal  line,  which  falls  a  tangent  to  the  curve  of  the 
spiral  at  the  commencement  of  the  second  revolution  of  each  volute. 

It  may  here  be  generally  remarked,  that  in  the  Ionic  the  shaft  is  fluted,  as  in  the  Doric, 
with  this  difference,  however,  that  the  number  of  flutes  is  increased  from  twenty  to  twenty-four, 
and  their  junctions  are  formed  by  fillets,  instead  of  sharp  arrises.  The  channels  being  thus  multi- 
plied, and  set  apart  from  each  other,  are  consequently  much  narrower  than  those  of  the  Doric 
order,  and  are  much  deeper  in  proportion  to  their  breadth ;  and  their  extremities  terminate  in  the 
semi-circle,  or  semi-ellipse. 

(74) 


THE    FIVE    ORDERS    OF     ARCHITECTURE.  75 


ROMAN    DORIC. 

The  Doric,  as  we  have  observed  before,  is  the  oldest  and  simplest  of  the  three 
orders  used  by  the  Greeks,  but  it  was  ranked  by  the  writers  of  the  Renaissance  as 
the  second  of  the  five  Roman  orders.  The  shaft  of  the  column  has  twenty  flutings, 
which  are  separated  by  a  sharp  edge,  and  not  by  a  fillet  as  in  the  other  orders,  and 
they  are  less  than  a  semicircle  in  depth;  the  moulding  below  the  abacus  of  the 
capital  is  an  ovolo;  the  architrave  of  the  entablature  is  surmounted  with  a  plain 
fillet,  called  the  tenia;  the  frieze  is  ornamented  by  flat  projections,  with  three  chan- 
nels cut  in  each,  which  are  called  triglyphs;  the  spaces  between  these  are  called 
metopes;  under  the  triglyphs  and  below  the  tenia  of  the  architrave  are  placed  small 
drops  or  guttae;  along  the  top  of  the  frieze  runs  a  broad  fillet,  called  the  capital  of 
the  triglyphs;  the  sofiit  of  the  cornice  has  broad  and  shallow  blocks  worked  on  it, 
called  mutules,  one  of  which  is  placed  over  each  metope  and  each  triglyph;  on  the 
under  surface  are  several  rows  of  guttos  or  drops.  Li  these  respects  the  Roman 
Doric  is  identical  with  the  Grecian,  but  in  other  points  there  is  considerable  difier- 
ence.  In  the  pure  Grecian  examples  the  column  has  no  base,  and  its  height  varies 
from  about  four  to  six  and  a  half  diameters;  the  capital  has  a  perfectly  plain  square 
abacus,  and  the  ovolo  is  but  little  if  at  all  curved  in  section,  except  at  the  top,  where 
it  is  quirked  under  the  abacus;  under  the  ovolo  are  a  few  plain  fillets  and  small 
channels,  and  a  short  distance  below  them  a  deep  narrow  channel  is  cut  in  the  shaft; 
the  flutes  of  the  shaft  are  continued  up  to  the  fillets  under  the  ovolo. 

In  the  Roman  Doric  the  shaft  is  usually  from  seven  to  eight  diameters  high,  and 
generally  has  a  base,  frequently  the  Attic,  and  sometimes  that  which  is  peculiar  to 
the  order,  consisting  of  a  plinth  and  torus,  with  an  astragal  above  it;  the  capital 
has  a  small  moulding  round  the  top  of  the  abacus,  and  the  ovolo  is  in  section  a  quarter 
circle,  and  is  not  quirked;  under  the  ovolo  are  two  or  three  small  fillets,  and  below 
them  a  collarino  or  neck.  In  the  Roman  Doric,  the  triglyphs  at  the  angles  of  build- 
ings must  be  placed  over  the  centre  of  the  column,  and  the  metopes  must  be  exact 
squares.  Sometimes  the  mutules  are  omitted,  and  a  row  of  dentils  is  worked  under 
the  cornice. 


PLATE    XXXII. 

The  example  given  on  tlie  opposite  plate  is  an  Elevation  of  tlie  Doric  order  from  the  Eaths 
of  Diocletian,  at  Rome,  with  the  proportions  in  numbers.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  mouldings 
and  enrichments  in  the  cornice,  this  may  be  termed  enriched  Boric.  The  disposition  of  the 
triglyphs  and  metopes  in  the  frieze  is  according  to  the  rules  of  Vitruvius. 

We  append  a  method,  whereby  may  be  determined  the  proportions  of  the  different  parts,  the 
intcrcolumniations  and  the  distribution  of  the  metopes,  in  a  fa9ade  or  portico  of  the  Doric  order, 
according  to  the  rules  observed  by  the  ancients  in  the  erection  of  their  temples. 

The  front  of  a  Doric  temple,  where  the  columns  are  placed,  is  divided,  if  it  be  terastyle,  into 
twenty-eight  parts ;  if  hexastyle,  into  forty-four.  One  of  these  parts  will  be  the  module.  The 
thickness  of  the  column  must  be  two  modules ;  the  height,  with  the  capital,  fourteen ;  the  height 
of  the  capital  itself  one  module,  and  the  breadth  two  modules  and  a  sixth.  The  height  of  the 
capital  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which  one  is  given  to  the  abacus  with  the  cimatium ;  another 
to  the  echinus  with  the  annulets ;  and  the  third  to  the  hypoti-achelion.  The  height  of  the  epi- 
stilium,  with  the  tenia  and  drops,  is  one  module.  The  tenia  has  the  seventh  of  a  module,  the 
length  of  a  drop  under  the  tenia,  coinciding  with  the  perpendicular  of  the  triglyphs.  Their 
height  with  the  regula  is  one-sixth  of  a  module.  The  breadth  of  the  epistilium  also  answers  to 
the  hypotrachelion  of  the  column.  On  the  epistilium  are  placed  the  triglyphs,  one  module  in 
breadth  and  one  and  a  half  in  .height.  Two  of  these  are  between  each  column,  and  one  over 
the  centre  of  the  6olumn  at  the  angle.  The  breadth  of  the  triglyphs  is  divided  into  twelve 
equal  parts,  of  which  the  breadth  of  the  femur  in  the  middle  will  be  two  parts.  On  each  side 
of  the  femur  is  cut  a  channel,  whose  breadth  is  equal  to  two  parts.  Next  to  the  channels  two 
other  femurs  are  left,  each  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  middle  femur,  and  the  part  which  remains 
next  to  the  edge  of  each  triglyph  is  cut  in  the  form  of  a  semi-channel.  On  either  side  of  this, 
channels  are  sunk,  as  if  imprinted  by  the  elbow  of  a  square.  To  the  right  and  left  of  these 
another  femur  is  formed.  In  the  same  manner  serai-channels  must  be  sunk  at  the  extremities. 
The  triglyphs  being  thus  disposed,  the  height  of  the  metopes  equals  their  length.  On  the 
angles  the  semi-metopes  are  made  half  a  module  in  width.  The  capitals  of  the  triglyphs  have 
one-sixth  of  the  module.  On  these  is  placed  the  corona,  which  projects  a  half  and  one-sixth  of 
a  module,  having  a  cimatium  above  and  another  below.  In  the  under  part  of  the  corona,  over  the 
triglyphs  and  metopes,  the  drops  in  the  mutules  are  distributed,  six  in  length  and  three  in 
breadth.  The  spaces  between  the  metopes  being  rather  broader  than  the  triglyphs,  are  left 
either  plain  or  carved;  and  at  the  edge  of  the  corona,  a  channel,  termed  a  scotia,  is  cut.  All 
the  remaining  members  are  the  same  as  in  the  Ionic  order. 

(76) 


THE     FIVE     ORDERS     OF     ARCHITECTURE.  77 


OF   THE   ORDERS   IN   GENERAL. 

The  term  order,  as  applied  to  Architecture,  conveys  the  same  meaning  as  that 
of  liarmony  when  applied  to  music ;  or  the  more  ancient  one  of  ordminance,  when 
used  in  relation  to  painting.  It  means  in  fact  an  assemblage  of  parts  and  mould- 
ings, so  disposed  as  to  give  an  effect  at  once  pleasmg  to  the  eye,  and  proportioned 
and  adapted  to  the  office  each  has  to  perform. 

Vitruvius,  who  was  perhaps  the  first  writer  on  Architecture  who  flourished  after 
the  birth  of  Christ,  expresses  this  idea  as  follows :  "  It  is  an  apt  and  regular  dispo- 
sition of  the  members  of  a  work  separately,  and  a  comparison  of  the  universal  pro- 
portion with  symmetry."  Scamozzi,  one  of  the  old  masters,  a  contemporary  of  Palladio, 
and  who  after  the  death  of  that  great  architect  had  no  competitor,  seems  to  convey 
the  same  meaning  when  he  observes  :  "  That  it  is  a  kind  of  excellency  which  infinitely 
adds  to  the  shape  and  beauty  of  buildings,  sacred  or  profane."  The  idea  thus 
expressed  is  comprehended  in  the  terms  lyropriety  and  harmony. 

Each  of  the  compositions  known  generally  as  "The  Five  Orders"  consists,  as 
we  have  elsewhere  stated,  of  two  parts,  the  column  and  entablature;  each  of  which 
is  again  divided  into  three  other  parts,  which  are  severally  composed  of  mouldings, 
each  respectively  proi^ortioned  and  adapted  to  the  order  of  which  it  forms  a  part. 
The  orders  are,  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite;  each  of  which 
is  peculiar  in  its  composition,  and  well  calculated  to  express  the  various  attributes  of 
strength,  grace,  elegance,  and  richness.  These  orders,  rightly  understood  and  cor- 
rectly applied,  are  the  foundation  upon  which  Architecture  has  long  rested.  The 
three  most  ancient  are  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  to  which  the  Romans  added 
the  Tuscan,  as  they  subsequently  did  the  Composite.  Vitruvius  speaks  of  the  former 
as  "  rustic  even  to  deformity ;"  nor  were  the  later  masters  more  favorable  to  it,  except 
Palladio.  The  Composite,  the  other  Roman  invention,  is  termed  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton 
the  comjjounded  order.  It  is  composed  of  parts  of  the  other  orders,  but  principally 
of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian. 

The  proportions  of  the  parts  of  the  orders  are  as  various  as  the  examples,  but 
few  authors  agreeing.  In  those  we  have  chosen  the  parts  are  figured,  and  as  we 
proceed,  explanations  of  the  orders  more  in  detail  will  be  furnished  under  the  proper 
heads. 


PLATE    XXXIII. 

Is  a  finished  elevation  of  the  modern  Doric  from  Sir  William  Chambers,  who  took  his  example 
from  Vignola.  As  on  the  other  plates,  the  correct  proportions  are  here  given  in  numbers,  thus 
rendering  further  description  unnecessary. 

We  insert  in  this  place  the  following  rules,  given  by  Vitruvius,  for  the  diminution  of  columns, 
which  is  equally  appUcable  to  tliis  and  all  other  kinds  of  shafts,  the  Tuscan  alone  excepted. 

"The  diminution  of  the  top  of  the  column  at  the  hypotrachcllon  is  thus  regulated.  If  the 
column  be  not  less  than  fifteen  feet  high,  the  thickness  at  the  bottom  is  divided  into  six  parts, 
and  five  of  these  parts  are  given  as  the  thickness  at  the  top.  If  the  height  be  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  feet,  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  is  divided  into  six  parts  and  a  half,  and  five  and  a  half  of 
these  parts  make  the  thickness  of  the  column  at  the  top.  If  it  be  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet, 
the  bottom  is  divided  into  seven  parts,  and  six  of  these  make  the  diminution  at  the  top.  If  from 
thirty  to  forty  feet  high,  the  thickness  of  the  shaft  at  bottom  is  divided  into  seven  and  a  half 
parts,  of  which  six  and  a  half  are  the  measure  of  the  diminution  at  the  top.  If  the  column  be 
from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  it  is  divided  into  eight  parts,  whereof  seven  will  make  the  thickness 
of  the  hypotrachelion  at  the  top  of  the  shaft.  And  if  their  altitude  be  still  greater,  the  same 
proportional  method  is  to  be  observed  in  the  treatment  of  columns;  for,  as  a  greater  height 
causes  them  to  appear  more  diminished,  they  are  therefore  to  be  corrected  by  an  addition  of  thick- 
ness, beauty  being  the  province  of  the  eye,  which,  if  not  satisfied  by  the  due  proportion  and 
augmentation  of  the  members,  correcting  apparent  deficiencies  with  proper  additions,  the  aspect 
will  appear  coarse  and  displeasing." 

Of  the  order  in  general  it  has  been  remarked,  that  "on  viewing  and  comparing  the  examples 
of  the  Doric  order,  the  first  emotion  will  probably  be  one  of  surprise,  at  beholding  the  different 
proportions, — a  diversity  so  great  that  scarcely  any  two  instances  appear  which  do  not  materially 
differ  in  the  relative  size  of  their  parts,  both  in  general  and  in  detail,  and  presenting  differences 
•which  cannot  be  reconciled  upon  any  system  of  calculation,  whether  the  diameter  or  the  height 
of  the  column,  or  the  general  height  of  the  order,  be  taken  as  the  clement  of  proportion.  At 
the  same  time,  they  all  resemble  one  another  in  certain  characteristic  marks,  which  denote  the 
order;  the  differences  are  not  generic,  but  specific,  and  leave  unimpaired  those  plain  and  obvious 
marks  which  enable  us  to  circumscribe  the  genuine  Doric  order  within  a  simple  and  easy 
definition." 

(78) 


THE     FIXi:     ORDERS     OP     ARCHITECTURE.  79 


ROMAN    IONIC    OllDER. 

In  tliis  order  the  capital  becomes  the  chief  characteristic,  which  is  sufficient  to 
distinguish  it  from  any  other,  although  from  the  preceding,  or  Doric  order,  it  is  dis- 
tinguishable by  many  other  marked  differences,  such  as  the  employment  of  a  distinct 
base;  the  much  altered  proportions;  the  increased  number  and  different  contour  of 
the  flutes,  and  the  introduction  of  fillets ;  the  increased  ornamentation  of  the  entablar 
ture;    and  by  many  other  variations. 

The  shaft  varies  from  eight  and  a  quarter  to  nine  and  a  half  diameters  in  height. 
The  echinus,  astragal,  and  fillet,  are  common  to  both  Grecian  and  Ionic  capitals,  and 
the  echinus  is  uniformly  cut  into  eggs,  surrounded  with  angular-sectioned  borders,  and 
with  tongues  between  every  two  borders.  The  astragal  is  formed  into  a  row  of  beads, 
with  two  small  ones  between  every  two  large  ones.  These  mouldings  are  cut  in  a 
similar  manner  in  all  the  Roman  buildings  except  the  Coliseum. 

The  capitals  of  all  the  columns  are  sometimes  made  to  face  the  four  sides  of  the 
abacus  alike  on  each  side,  as  in  the  Temple  of  Concord,  at  Rome,  from  which  example 
the  Scamozzian  capital  was  formed. 

The  Attic  base  was  adopted  by  the  Romans,  and  seems  to  have  been  their  most 
favorite  form,  for  it  is  not  only  employed  in  all  the  examples  of  this  order  at  Rome,  but 
frequently  in  the  Corinthian  and  Composite  orders  also.  However,  the  proportions  of  the 
Attic  base  as  employed  by  the  Romans  are  different  from  that  employed  by  the  Greeks. 

There  are  but  few  examples  of  this  order,  as  practised  by  the  Romans,  remaining 
entire;  among  them  are  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus,  the  Temple  of  Concord,  and  that 
of  Fortuna  Virilis.  Although  these  Roman  examples  are  of  considerable  merit,  they 
would  seem  to  fall  short  of  the  Grecian  in  taste  and  elegance.  The  capital  was 
impoverished  by  the  volutes  being  considerably  reduced  in  size.  In  the  Temple  of 
Concord  the  volutes  are  placed  diagonally.  This  is  one  among  many  varieties  of  the 
Roman  Ionic  capital,  of  which  there  is  no  lack,  some  being  ornamented  with  human 
figures,  masks,  busts,  etc.  These  differences  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  ancients 
did  not  confine  themselves  to  the  same  treatment  of  this  order  on  all  occasions. 

The  Roman  entablature  differs  also  from  the  Grecian,  especially  in  the  proportions 
of  the  cornice,  which  in  the  latter  case  is  less  than  either  of  the  other  members,  whereas 
in  examples  of  Roman  practice  the  cornice  is  by  far  the  most  important  division. 


PLATE    XXXIV. 

In  this  plate  is  rcprcsenteil  the  design  of  the  antique  profile,  collected  by  Sir  William 
Chambers,  from  different  antiquities  at  Rome,  proportioned  by  modules  and  minutes.  The  height 
of  the  column  is  eighteen  modules,  and  that  of  the  entablature  four  and  a  half,  or  one-quarter 
of  the  height  of  the  column,  as  in  the  other  orders ;  which  is  a  trifle  less  than  in  any  of  the 
ancient  examples.  The  base  is  Attic,  as  it  is  in  most  of  the  Roman  antiques,  and  the  shaft  of 
the  column  may  be  cither  plain  or  fluted,  with  twenty-four  or  twenty  flutings  only,  the  plan  of 
which  flutings  should  be  a  trifle  more  than  semicircular ;  because,  when  so  executed,  they  arc 
more  distinctly  marked.  The  fillets,  or  intervals  between  the  flutes,  should  not  be  much  broader 
than  one -third  of  their  width,  nor  narrower  than  one-quarter.  The  ornaments  of  the  capital 
should  correspond  with  the  flutes  of  the  shaft ;  and  there  should  be  an  ove  or  dart,  according 
to  the  strict  rules  of  the  Romans,  over  the  middle  of  each  flute. 

The  three  parts  of  the  Ionic  entablature,  as  represented  in  this  plate,  bear  the  same  propor- 
tion to  each  other,  as  in  the  Tuscan  order;  the  frieze  is  plain,  as  being  the  most  suitable  to  the 
simplicity  of  the  rest  of  the  composition ;  and  the  coimice  is  almost  an  exact  copy — without  the 
enrichments — from  Vignola's  design,  in  which  there  is  a  purity  of  form,  a  grandeur  of  style,  and 
a  close  conformity  to  the  most  approved  specimens  of  the  ancients,  not  to  be  equaled  in  any  of 
the  profiles  of  his  competitors. 

If  it  be  requisite  to  reduce  the  Ionic  entablature  to  two-ninths  of  the  height  of  the  column, 
which  in  most  cases  is  preferable  to  that  of  one-quarter,  it  may  easily  be  accomplished  by  making 
the  module  of  the  entablature  less,  by  one-ninth,  than  the  semi-diameter  of  the  column ;  after- 
wards dividing  it  as  usual,  and  strictly  observing  the  same  dimensions  as  are  figured  on  the  plate. 
The  distribution  of  the  dentil-band  will,  in  such  case,  answer  very  nearly  in  all  the  regular  inter- 
columniations,  and  in  the  extreme  angle  there  will  be  a  dentil,  as  there  is  in  the  best  examples 
of  the  antique. 

In  the  decorations  of  the  interior  of  all  apartments,  when  much  delicacy  is  requisite,  and 
the  eye  has  to  contemplate  diminutive  objects,  the  height  of  the  entablature  may  be  reduced 
even  to  one-fifth  of  the  column,  by  observing  the  same  method,  and  making  the  module  only  four- 
fifths  of  the  semi-diameter. 

(80) 


THE     FIVPJ     ORDKRH     OF     ARCHITECTURE.  81 


ROMAN    CORINTHIAN    ORDER. 

Although  the  Romans  in  all  probability  borrowed  the  idea  of  this  order  from  the 
Greeks,  and  cannot  therefore  rightly  lay  claim  to  its  invention,  they  are  fully  entitled 
to  the  praise  due  to  its  perfection;  the  order,  as  far  as  we  know  it,  is  rather  Roman 
than  Greek.  We  cannot  be  said  to  know  of  more  than  three  examples  in  Greece, 
and  these  are  the  Tower  of  the  Winds,  the  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  and  the  Temple 
of  Jupiter  at  Olympia;  there  are  others,  it  is  true,  as  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
pius  at  Athens,  but  this  was  erected  long  after  the  order  had  been  practised  by  the 
Romans.  The  principal  Italian  specimens  are  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Stater,  three 
columns  of  which  remain  in  the  Campo,  Rome ;  the  Pantheon ;  the  Temple  of  Vesta, 
or  the  Sibyl,  at  Tivoli;  the  temples  of  Mars  Ultor,  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  Vesta  at 
Rome,  Antonius  and  Faustina,  and  of  Jupiter  Tonans.  Among  all  the  specimens 
which  have  come  to  our  knowledge  there  are  not  two  alike;  they  all  vary  in  detail, 
and  some  very  much  so;  some  fragments  bear  evidence  of  the  introduction  of  figures 
of  animals,  etc. 

The  Romans,  in  borrowing  their  architecture  from  the  Greeks,  appear  to  have 
indiscriminately  employed  the  Corinthian  order,  which  they  found  possessed  of  an 
ornamental  character  adapted  to  the  splendor  and  magnificence  of  their  taste,  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  early  Greeks  used  the  Doric,  and  the  lonians  the  order  which 
bears  their  name. 

The  orders  of  Architecture  appear  to  be  altogether  national;  thus  the  numerous 
temples  of  Greece  and  its  Sicilian  colonies  are  Doric,  and  bear  one  general  character; 
the  Ionian  cities  present  the  best,  the  most  elegant,  and  chaste  examples  of  the  Ionic 
order;  while  Italy,  Balbec,  and  Palmyra,  exhibit  the  Corinthian  almost  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  any  other. 

Some  writers  suppose  that  the  Corinthian  arose  naturally  out  of  the  Doric  order, 
while  most  modern  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the  capital  was  invented  by  the  Egyp- 
tians; yet,  although  many  bell-formed  capitals  are  to  be  found  among  the  ruins  of 
Egypt,  the  Corinthian  is  superior  to  anything  yet  discovered  there;  and  even  in  the 
present  day,  this  capital  exhibits  the  utmost  elegance,  beauty,  and  richness,  that  have 
ever  been  attained  in  architectural  composition,  though  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  excel  it. 

L 


PLATE    XXXV. 

Is  a  finished  elevation  of  tlic  Corinthian  base,  capital,  and  entablature,  with  the  proportions  of  the 
members  figured  in  minutes. 

The  example  here  chosen  is  from  the  three  famed  columns  in  the  Campo  Vaccine  at  Rome, 
supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Stater,  and  certainly  one  of  the  most  perfect 
and  elegant  remains  of  this  order  that  antiquity  can  produce. 

It  may  be  well,  in  lieu  of  a  more  extended  notice  of  the  example,  to  append  a  general 
description  of  the  standard  form  of  this  order,  for  the  details  vary  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
different  examples :  The  average  height  of  the  column,  inclusive  of  capital  and  base,  taking  a  mean 
proportional  between  those  of  the  Pantheon  .and  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Stater,  is  ten  diameters,  the 
shaft  containing  eight,  and  the  remaining  two  being  made  up  in  the  capital  and  base.  The  shaft 
in  the  ancient  examples  was  almost  invariably  fluted,  and  the  flutes  occasionally  filled  to  about  one- 
third  of  their  height  with  cabling;  the  number  of  the  flutes  is  generally  twenty-four,  as  in  the 
Ionic  order,  and  arranged  in  the  same  manner.  The  capital  is  separated  from  the  shaft  by  an 
astragal  and  cinctm-e,  and  is  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  bell,  ornamented  as  follows :  Imme- 
diately above  the  astragal  are  two  rows  of  acanthus,  or  olive  leaves,  one  above  the  other,  each 
row  consisting  of  eight  leaves ;  the  upper  row  is  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  one  leaf 
immediately  in  the  centre  of  each  side  of  and  beneath  the  abacus,  and  one  under  each  corner  of 
the  abacus,  which,  altogether,  one  in  the  centre  of  each  side,  and  one  at  each  angle  of  the  capital, 
will  make  up  the  eight  leaves.  The  leaves  of  the  lower  range  are  disposed  so  as  to  alternate 
with  those  of  the  upper,  or,  in  other  words,  the  upper  leaves  rise  between  the  divisions  of  the  lower 
ones.  Between  every  two  of  the  leaves  of  the  upper,  or  second  series,  rises  a  stalk,  out  of  which 
springs  a  bunch  of  foliage,  consisting  of  two  leaves,  one  of  which  branches  toward  the  centre  of  the 
abacus,  and  the  other  toward  the  angle.  Out  of  each  of  the  leaves,  at  the  angles,  proceeds 
diagonally  a  volute,  the  two  at  each  angle  meeting  under  the  abacus,  which  they  support;  two 
smaller  ones,  emerging  from  the  central  leaves,  meet  under  the  centre  of  the  abacus,  and  are  sur- 
mounted by  a  small  flower,  called  the  flower  of  the  capital.  The  abacus  is  square  in  its  general 
plan,  with  concave  sides,  curving  out  toward  the  angles,  which  are  cut  off.  The  mouldings 
consist  of  a  cavetto,  fillet,  and  echinus,  the  first  and  last  of  which  are  sometimes  enriched.  The 
proper  Corinthian  base  differs  from  the  Ionic  or  Attic,  in  having  two  smaller  scotia,  separated  by 
two  astragals;  both  bases,  however,  arc  used  indiscriminately,  and  perhaps  the  Attic  is  more  gene- 
rally employed. 

(82) 


THE     B^IVE     OKDERS     OP     ARCHITECTURE.  83 

THE    FIVE    ORDERS    ARRANGED    IN    PARTS. 

In  the  six  preceding  plates  are  contained  some  of  the  best  and  most  celebrated 
examples  of  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders,  with  their  several  proportions 
correctly  figured  in  modules  and  minutes.  And  in  order  still  more  fully  to  elucidate 
and  simplify  the  arrangement  of  this  important  department  of  our  work,  and  to  com- 
press within  restricted  limits  all  that  will  be  likely  to  prove  most  useful  and  inte- 
resting, we  here  propose  to  give  what  may  be  termed  a  continuation  of  the  ti'eatment 
of  the  orders,  which  consists  of  an  arrangement  of  all  of  their  princij)al  parts  in 
detail,  accompanied  by  simple  descriptions.  Interspersed  with  these  will  be  found 
the  opinions  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  among  ancient  and  modern  architects  on 
the  "  Proportions  of  the  Orders,"  etc.,  collected  from  standard  authorities  and  ar- 
ranged with  perspicuity. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  THE  TUSCAN  ORDER. 

Divide  the  given  height  for  this  whole  order  into  ten  parts,  of  which  take  two 
for  that  of  the  pedestal;  and  then  divide  the  remaining  eight  parts  into  five,  giving 
one  of  these  to  the  altitude  of  the  entablature,  and  the  other  four  to  the  length  of 
the  column,  inclusive  of  the  base  and  capital ;  by  these  means  the  entablature  is  made 
one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the  column. 

The  entablature  is  divided  into  seven  parts,  of  which  two  are  given  to  the  archi- 
trave, two  to  the  frieze,  and  three  to  the  cornice.  Observe,  also,  that  four  of  these 
parts  are  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  column,  and  that  seven  of  these  diameters 
form  its  height.  The  altitude  of  the  pedestal  is  divided  into  six  parts,  two  being 
for  the  base  and  plinth,  three  for  the  height  of  the  dado,  and  one  for  that  of  the  cap. 
In  order  to  find  the  breadth  of  the  dado,  the  diameter  of  the  column  is  divided  into 
five  parts,  and  seven  such  proportional  parts  form  the  breadth,  and  also  determine 
the  projection  of  the  base  of  the  column. 

The  proportion  of  the  base  of  the  pedestal  may  be  found  by  dividing  the  two 
parts  allotted  for  the  base  and  plinth  into  three,  and  giving  one  of  these  to  the  base 
and  the  remaining  two  to  the  plinth ;  the  projection  of  the  base  and  cap  of  the  pedestal 
is  equal  to  the  height  of  the  former. 


PLATE    XXXVI.  « 

THE    TUSCAN    PEDESTAL,  WITH    PART    OP    THE    SHAFT    OP    THE    COLUMN 

AND    ITS    BASE. 

The  altitude  of  the  base  of  the  column  is  half  a  diameter;  this  is  divided  into  two  equal 
parts,  one  of  which  is  given  to  the  plinth ;  the  remaining  part  is  again  divided  into  four,  of  which 
one  is  given  to  the  fillet,  and  three  to  the  torus. 

The  whole  projection  is  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  diameter  of  the  column;  and  the  projection 
of  the  fillet  equals  its  height. 

The  altitude  of  the  base,  plinth,  and  cap  of  the  pedestal  has  been  already  shown,  but  in 
order  to  find  the  pi'oportions  of  the  several  members,  the  base  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which 
one  is  given  to  the  fillet,  and  two  to  the  hollow. 

The  altitude  of  the  cap  is  divided  into  four  parts,  of  which  one  is  allowed  to  the  ogee,  two  to 
the  corona,  and  one  to  the  band  at  the  top.  In  regard  to  the  projections,  they  both  equal  the 
altitude  of  the  base;  and  being  each  divided  into  three  parts,  the  projection  of  the  several  mem- 
bers may  readily  be  obtained. 

(84) 


^    ^^^  ..%UOk  .^  . 


"/lyf  i 


f  E'Sg 


?"  rf>  ■■?  <!^  •^^  .> 


.JT 


^TUE    FIVE    ORDERS    OF    ARC  UITECTURE.  85 


GENERxVL    REMARKS    ON    THE    TUSCAN    ORDER. 

The  Tuscan  is  the  simplest  and  most  solid  of  the  orders.  It  is  composed  of 
few  and  large  parts,  and  is  of  a  construction  so  massive  that  it  seems  capable  of  sup- 
porting the  heaviest  burdens;  whence  it  is  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton  compared  to  a  sturdy 
laborer,  dressed  in  homely  apparel. 

This  order  will  not  admit  of  ornaments  of  any  kind;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  some- 
times customary  to  represent  in  the  shaft  of  its  column  rustic  cinctures,  as  at  the 
Luxembourg  in  Paris,  and  in  many  buildings  of  considerable  note  in  London.  This 
practice,  though  frequent  and  to  be  met  with  in  many  of  the  works  of  distinguished 
architects,  is  not  always  excusable,  and  should  be  indulged  in  with  great  caution,  as 
it  is  calculated  to  hide  the  robust,  characteristic,  and  truly  rustic,  but  manly  figure  of 
the  column,  and  also  alters  the  proportions  and  aflfects  the  simplicity  of  the  entire 
composition.  Few  examples  of  these  bandages  are  to  be  found  in  ancient  remains; 
and,  in  general,  it  is  advisable  to  avoid  them  in  all  large  designs,  reserving  the  rustic 
work  for  the  rntercolumniating,  where  it  may  be  employed  with  great  propriety,  and 
will  serve  to  produce  such  a  contrast  as  at  once  renders  the  aspect  of  the  entire  com- 
position perfect,  distinct,  and  striking. 

But  in  smaller  works,  where  the  parts  are  few  and  easily  comprehended,  rustic 
cinctm'es  may  be  sometimes  introduced  and  sanctioned,  as  they  serve  to  diversify  the 
forms,  produce  strong  and  impressive  contrasts,  and  contribute  most  essentially  to  the 
bold  and  masculine  effect  of  the  composition. 


PLATE    XXXVII. 

THE    TUSCAN    ENTABLATURE    AND    CAPITAL. 

The  -ivliolc  altitude  of  the  entablature  being  equal  to  one  and  three-fourths  of  a  diameter,  and 
the  principal  heights  of  the  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice  having  been  set  off,  the  architrave  is 
next  divided  into  six  parts,  of  which  two  are  given  to  the  first  face,  three  to  the  second,  and  one 
to  the  band  at  the  top. 

The  projection  of  the  band  is  equal  to  its  altitude,  and  that  of  the  second  face  is  one-third 
of  the  foregoing. 

The  altitude  of  the  cornice  is  divided  into  nine  parts,  (or  rather  each  principal  third  into 
three,)  and  of  these  one  and  a  half  are  given  to  the  hollow ;  one-half  to  the  fillet ;  one  and  a  half 
to  the  ovolo;  two  to  the  corona;  one-half  to  the  fillet;  two  to  the  cyma-recta;  and  one  to  the 
upper  fillet. 

The  projection  of  the  cornice  is  equal  to  its  altitude,  and  is  similarly  divided;  and  the  pro- 
jections of  the  several  members  are  thus  made  so  apparent  on  the  plate,  as  to  render  further 
description  unnecessary. 

The  capital  is  half  a  diameter  in  height,  and  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which  one  is 
given  to  the  frieze  of  the  capital ;  another  to  the  ovolo  and  fillet,  of  which  the  latter  has  one- 
fourth;  and  the  remaining  part  to  the  abacus.  To  find  the  projection  of  the  capital,  divide  the 
diameter  of  the  column  at  the  top  into  six  equal  parts,  and  give  one  of  these  to  each  side  of  the 
abacus;    the  whole  of  which  will  thus  form  eight  parts,  as  described. 

The  astragal  or  collarino  is  equal  to  one-third  of  the  frieze  of  the  capital  in  height,  and  that 
of  the  fillet  is  equal  to  one-half  of  the  astragal;  the  projection  of  each  of  these  equals  their 
height.  It  may  be  remarked,  that  the  proportions  for  this  moulding  serve  for  those  in  all  the 
other  orders. 

(86) 


:f^i.ii;ixyaii. 


iis^A^  i^T^iiiL-a-iruju 


THE     FIVE     ORDERS     OP     ARCHITECTURE.  87 


THE  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  THE  DORIC  ORDER. 


An  altitude  having  been  proposed  for  this  whole  order,  divide  it  first  into  ten 
parts,  of  which  allow  two  to  the  pedestal,  and  make  the  remaining  eight  parts  into 
five ;  then  give  four  of  these  to  the  base,  shaft,  and  capital  of  the  column,  and  reserve 
the  other  for  the  entablature,  which  must  be  again  subdivided  into  four  parts,  of  which 
two  will  form  the  diameter  of  the  column.  Thus  the  column  will  be  eight  diameters 
in  height,  and  the  entablature  one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the  column.  Of  the  four 
divisions  of  the  entablature,  one  is  given  to  the  architrave,  one  and  a  half  to  the 
frieze,  and  one  and  a  half  to  the  cornice. 

The  architrave  projects  one-sixth  of  its  height,  and  the  projection  of  the  cornice 
equals  the  diameter  of  the  column.  The  height  of  the  pedestal  is  divided  into  seven 
parts,  of  which  two  are  given  to  the  base  and  plinth,  four  to  the  dado,  and  one  to 
the  cap. 

The  column  diminishes  one-sixth  of  its  diameter  in  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the 
length  of  the  shaft.  If  the  lower  diameter  of  the  shaft  be  divided  into  five  parts, 
and  one  of  these  added  to  each  side,  the  whole  will  give  the  projection  of  the  base, 
and  also  the  breadth  of  the  dado  of  the  pedestal,  which  thus  forms  a  perfect  square. 

The  base  of  the  pedestal  contains  one-third  of  the  two  parts  allotted  for  the  base 
and  plinth;    its  projection  equals  its  height;   the  cap  projects  four-fifths  of  its  height. 


PLATE    XXXVIII. 


THE    DORIC    PEDESTAL,   WITH    PART    OP    THE    SHAFT    OF    THE    COLUMN 

AND    ITS    BASE. 

The  height  of  the  base  of  column  is  half  its  diameter,  and  the  projection  gives  the  breadth  of 
the  pedestal,  -which  is  one  diameter  and  two-fifths.  The  several  heights  of  the  jjlinth,  base,  and 
cap  of  the  pedestal  are  described  on  the  preceding  page.  To  find  the  proportions  of  the  indi- 
vidual members,  divide  the  height  of  the  base  into  six  parts,  of  which  three  are  given  to  the 
torus;  one  to  the  fillet;  and  two  to  the  hollow;  the  projections  being  figured  in  parts,  are  easily 
obtained  by  a  reference  to  the  plate.  The  cap  is  divided  into  five  parts,  of  which  one  is  given 
to  the  hollow ;  half  a  part  to  the  fillet ;  one  and  a  half  to  the  ovolo ;  one  and  a  half  to  the 
corona;  and  half  a  part  to  the  fillet  at  the  top.  The  whole  projection  of  the  cap  equals  four- 
fifths  of  its  height;    and  that  of  each  particular  member  may  be  seen  upon  the  plate. 

The  height  of  the  base  of  the  column  has  three  divisions ;  the  lower  one  of  these  being 
reserved  for  the  plinth,  the  upper  torus  receives  a  half  of  the  corresponding  division ;  and  the 
whole  of  the  remainder,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  plate,  is  divided  equally  between  the  lower  torus 
and  the  portion  embracing  the  scotia  and  the  fillets ;  the  half  which  contains  these  is  again  sub- 
divided into  six  parts,  of  which  the  scotia  receives  four,  and  the  fillets  the  remaining  two.  The 
whole  projection  of  the  base  is  one-fifth  of  the  diameter,  and  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which 
one  forms  the  projection  of  the  upper  fillet,  and  two  are  given  to  that  of  the  upper  torus.  All  of 
these  heights  and  projections  are  fully  explained  in  the  example. 

On  the  lower  part  of  the  shaft  is  described  the  plan  for  fluting  the  column.  The  flutes 
should  be  twenty  in  number,  merely  separated  by  an  edge  or  arris.  A  and  B  denote  different 
methods  of  finding  the  form  or  depth  of  the  flutes. 

(88) 


f^ic.;yxx"y/m[ 


intii  ^■^j-T  rrf iTiiin 


%m., 


t 


h- 


^ 


_i 


THE     FIVE     ORDERS     OF     ARCHITECTURE.  89 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  DORIC  ORDER. 

The  Doric  order,  next  in  strength  to  the  Tuscan,  and  of  a  grave,  robust,  or 
masculine  aspect,  is,  by  Scamozzi,  called  the  Herculean.  Being  the  most  ancient  of 
all  the  orders  it  is  more  primitive  in  its  form  than  any  of  the  others,  having  triglyphs 
in  the  frieze  to  represent  the  ends  of  joists,  and  mutules  in  its  cornice  to  represent 
rafters,  with  inclined  soffits  to  express  their  direction  in  the  originals,  from  which 
they  were  imitated.  The  Doric  columns  are  often  seen  in  ancient  works,  executed 
without  bases,  in  imitation  of  trees ;  and,  in  the  primitive  buildings,  without  any  plinths 
to  raise  them  above  the  ground. 

Freart  de  Cambrai,  in  speaking  of  this  order,  observes  that  dehcate  ornaments 
are  repugnant  to  its  characteristic  soHdity,  and  that  it  succeeds  best  in  the  simple 
regularity  of  its  proportions.  "  Nosegays  and  garlands  of  flowers,"  says  he,  "  grace 
not  a  Hercules,  who  always  appears  more  becomingly  with  a  rough  club  and  lion's 
skin;  for  there  are  beauties  of  various  sorts,  and  often  so  dissimilar  in  their  natures, 
that  those  which  may  be  highly  proper  on  one  occasion  may  be  quite  the  reverse, 
even  ridiculously  absurd,  in  others." 

In  most  of  the  antiques,  the  Doric  column  is  found  to  have  been  executed  without 
a  base;  this  is  particularly  observable  in  examining  the  remains  of  Grecian  examples. 
Vitruvius  also  makes  it  without  one;  the  base,  according  to  this  author,  having  been 
first  employed  in  the  Ionic  order  to  imitate  the  sandal  or  covering  of  a  woman's 
foot.  Scamozzi  blames  this  practice,  and  most  of  the  moderns  have  been  of  his 
opinion;    the  Attic  base  is  now  generally  employed  in  this  order. 

Chambers  says,  that  the  ancients  employed  the  Doric  in  temples  dedicated  to 
Minerva,  to  Mars,  and  to  Hercules,  whose  grave  and  manly  dispositions  suited  well 
with  its  character;  and  Serlio  remarks  that  it  is  proper  for  churches  dedicated  to 
saints  remarkable  for  their  fortitude  in  exposing  their  lives,  and  suffering  for  the 
Christian  faith.  It  may  be  employed  in  private  dwellings;  and  is  particularly  well 
adapted  for  columns  erected  to  the  memory  of  brave  men,  or  intended  to  commemorate 
great  victories  or  heroic  actions. 


PLATE    XXXIX. 

THE    DORIC    ENTABLATURE    AND    CAPITAL. 

As  previouslj  mentioned,  the  whole  height  of  this  entablature,  -which  consists  of  two  diameters, 
is  divided  into  four  parts,  of  which  the  architrave  receives  one  ;  the  frieze  one  and  a  half ;  and 
the  cornice  one  and  a  half.  To  find  the  proportions  of  the  several  members,  the  architrave  is 
divided  into  six  parts ;  two  of  these  are  given  to  the  first  face,  three  to  the  second,  and  one  to 
the  band  at  the  top.  The  drops  on  the  second  face  have  one  of  its  parts,  of  which  their  fillet 
receives  one-third;  their  projection  also  equals  a  part.  The  frieze  is  embellished  with  triglyphs, 
which  are  half  a  diameter  in  breadth ;  one  of  these  must  be  placed  over  the  centre  of  the  column ; 
and  the  space  between  each  is  termed  the  metope,  which  should  be  equal  to  the  height  of  the 
frieze.  The  triglyphs  arc  each  divided  into  twelve  parts,  of  which  one  is  allowed  to  each  half 
channel,  two  to  each  whole  channel,  and  two  to  each  of  the  spaces  between  the  channels ;  the 
projection  is  one  aad  a  half  of  these  parts.  The  height  of  the  cornice  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  and  the  lower  of  these  is  subdivided  into  three  smaller  parts,  one  of  which  gives  the  height 
of  the  cap  of  the  triglyph ;  another  that  of  the  hollow  and  fillet ;  and  the  remaining  one  that  of 
the  ovolo.  The  other  two  parts  are  divided  into  seven.  Of  these  two  are  given  to  the  mutule 
and  its  cap ;  two  to  the  corona ;  one  to  the  cyma-reversa  and  its  fillet ;  and  two  to  the  cyma- 
recta  and  its  fillet.  The  smaller  divisions  are  easily  discovered  on  the  plate.  The  projections 
are  divided  into  four  parts  proportional  to  the  three  which  constitute  the  height;  and  the  first 
of  these  is  again  subdivided  into  three,  of  which  one  is  given  to  the  cap  of  the  triglyph ;  another 
to  the  cavetto ;  and  the  other  to  the  ovolo.  The  other  part  is  also  subdivided  into  seven,  which 
regulate  those  of  the  cyma  and  corona,  as  may  be  seen  on  the  plate. 

The  altitude  of  the  capital  is  divided  into  three  parts ;  one  of  these  gives  the  height  of  the 
frieze ;  another  the  fillets  and  ovolo ;  and  the  third  the  abacus,  cyma-reversa,  and  fillets.  The 
minor  subdivisions  are  figured  on  the  plate.  The  projection  of  the  capital  equals  the  height  of 
the  frieze  and  fillet,  and  its  subdivisions,  which  are  four,  designate  the  projections  of  the  several 
members,  as  will  be  seen  by  inspection. 

(90) 


fi'L.xxxxa. 


ULl'D^UUUir    L£>'JU*Jt:LU^.'J" 


THE    FIVE    ORDERS     OF     ARCHITECTURE.  91 


THE    PRINCIPAL    PARTS    OF    THE    IONIC    ORDER. 

Divide  the  whole  given  height  for  this  order  into  ten  parts,  of  which  apportion 
two  for  that  of  the  pedestal;  and  then  make  the  remaining  eight  parts  into  six,  of 
which  five  constitute  the  length  of  the  column,  (inclusive  of  the  capital  and  base,) 
and  the  one  which  remains  is  the  height  of  the  entablature.  The  length  of  the 
column  being  divided  into  nine  parts,  one  of  these  will  form  the  diameter  of  the 
column,  by  which  the  proportions  of  several  of  the  smaller  members  are  regulated. 

The  height  of  the  entablature  is  divided  into  six  parts,  of  which  two  are  given 
to  the  architrave,  one  and  a  half  to  the  frieze,  and  two  and  a  half  to  the  cornice. 
The  projection  of  the  architrave  is  one-fourth  of  its  height;  and  that  of  the  cornice 
is  equal  to  its  height. 

The  height  of  the  pedestal  is  divided  into  seven  parts,  of  which  two  are  given 
to  the  base  and  plinth,  four  to  the  dado,  and  one  to  the  cap. 

The  diameter  of  the  column  is  diminished  from  a  point  taken  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  second  third  of  the  shaft,  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  preceding 
order;  and  the  base  of  the  column  has  a  similar  projection,  which  also  gives  a  like 
breadth  to  the  dado  of  the  pedestal. 

The  base  of  the  pedestal  forms  one-third  of  the  two  parts  allowed  as  the  pro- 
portion of  the  height  for  the  base  and  plinth ;  and  its  projection  is  equal  to  its  height. 
The  projection  of  the  cap  is  equal  to  three-fourths  of  its  height. 


PLATE    XL. 

THE    IONIC    PEDESTAL,    WITH    PART    OF    THE    SHAFT    OF    THE    COLUMN 

AND    ITS    BASE. 

The  height  of  the  base  of  the  column  in  this  order  is  equal  to  the  half  of  its  diameter;  and 
the  projection  is  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  -whole.      This  also  gives  the  breadth  of  the  pedestal. 

The  heights  of  the  plinth,  base,  and  cap  of  the  pedestal  have  been  fully  described  in  the 
preceding  page;  but  in  order  to  apportion  the  heights  of  the  several  members,  that  of  the  base 
is  divided  into  four  parts,  of  which  one-half  part  is  given  to  the  fillet;  two  to  the  cyma;  another 
half  to  the  fillet;  and  one  to  the  hollow.  The  projection  is  equal  to  the  height,  and  being  simi- 
larly divided  into  parts,  the  proportion  of  each  member  may  be  readily  seen  by  reference  to  the 
plate. 

The  cap  is  also  divided  into  four  parts,  of  which  the  hollow  and  its  fillet,  the  ovolo,  the  corona, 
and  the  ogee  and  its  fillet,  each  receive  one  respectively.  The  whole  projection  is  equal  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  height;  and  each  third  being  subdivided  into  three  parts,  they  are  set  off,  as  may 
be  seen  on  the  plate. 

The  height  of  the  base  of  the  column  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which  one  is  reserved 
for  the  plinth,  and  the  other  two  are  apportioned  as  in  the  Doric  order.  The  bead  above  the 
upper  torus,  which  is  part  of  the  column,  is  double  the  height  of  the  fillet.  The  fillets  are  all 
of  similar  dimensions.      The  projection  of  the  base  is  identical  with  that  of  the  preceding  order. 

AVhen  the  column  of  this  order  is  fluted,  the  flutes  amount  to  twenty-four  in  number.  These 
are  sunk  to  the  depth  of  a  semicircle,  of  which  the  fillet  between  each  equals  a  third  part,  as  is 
more  plainly  shown  on  the  plan  given  of  one-quarter  of  the  column. 

(92) 


^^^fT.'^K^i'jrjSM 

"--"""'  • '      '■:^ 

^^^^ 

i 


THE    FIVE     ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE.  93 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  IONIC  ORDER. 

The  Ionic,  being  the  second  of  the  Grecian  orders,  holds  a  middle  station  between 
the  other  two,  and  stands  in  equipoise  between  the  grave  solidity  of  the  Doric  and 
the  elegant  delicacy  of  the  Corinthian.  Among  the  antiques,  however,  we  find  it  in 
diflferent  dresses :  sometimes  plentifully  adorned,  and  inclining  most  toward  the  Corin- 
thian; sometimes  more  simple,  and  bordering  on  Doric  plainness, — all  according  to 
the  fancy  of  the  architect,  or  nature  of  the  structure  where  employed.  It  is,  through- 
out, of  a  more  slender  construction  than  either  of  the  preceding  orders;  its  appear- 
ance, though  simple,  is  graceful  and  majestic;  its  ornaments  should  be  few,  rather 
neat  than  luxuriant;  and,  as  there  should  be  nothing  exaggerated  or  affectedly  striking 
in  any  of  its  parts,  it  is  not  inaptly  compared,  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  to  a  sedate 
matron,  rather  in  decent  than  magnificent  attire. 

"Among  the  ancients,"  says  Chambers,  who  always  refers  to  the  Roman  architects, 
"the  form  of  the  Ionic  profile  appears  to  have  been  more  positively  determined  than 
that  of  any  other;  for  in  all  of  the  antiques,  the  Temple  of  Concord  excepted,  it  is 
exactly  the  same,  and  conformable  to  the  description  given  by  Vitruvius." 

"As  the  Doric  order,"  he  further  remarks,  "is  particularly  affected  in  churches 
and  temples  dedicated  to  male  saints,  so  the  Ionic  is  chiefly  used  in  such  as  are 
consecrated  to  females  of  the  matronal  state." 

It  may  be  well  employed  in  courts  of  justice;  and  may  be  also  introduced  in 
libraries,  colleges,  seminaries,  and  other  structures  having  relation  to  arts  and  letters, 
as  well  as  private  houses;  and,  as  Le  Clerc  says,  in  all  places  dedicated  to  peace  and 
tranquillity.  • 

The  ancients  employed  it  in  temples  sacred  to  Luna,  Bacchus,  Diana,  and  other 
deities,  whose  dispositions  they  esteemed  to  hold  a  medium  between  the  severe  and 
the  effeminate. 


PLATE    XLI. 

THE    IONIC    ENTABLATURE. 

The  whole  height  of  this  entablature  is  divided,  as  previously  mentioned,  into  six  parts,  of 
■which  two  are  given  to  the  architrave ;  one  and  a  half  to  the  frieze ;  and  two  and  a  half  to  the 
cornice.  To  find  the  proportions  of  its  several  members,  the  height  of  the  architrave  is  sub- 
divided into  sixteen  parts,  of  which  three  are  given  to  the  first  face;  four  to  the  second;  and  five 
to  the  third :  the  bead  also  receives  one ;  the  ogee  two ;  and  the  fillet  one.  The  extreme  pro- 
jection of  the  architrave  is  equal  to  one-fourth  of  its  height,  and  that  of  the  upper  face  is  equal 
to  one-third  of  the  preceding  part.  The  outline  of  the  frieze  is  formed  by  describing  a  triangle 
in  the  centre  division  of  its  height,  (as  shown,)  the  extreme  angle  of  which  forms  the  point  for  the 
centre  of  the  curve  or  swelling. 

The  height  of  the  cornice  is  divided  into  eight  parts,  of  which  the  hollow  and  fillet  (one- 
fourth)  receive  one ;  the  ovolo  another ;  and  the  modillion  and  cap  (half  a  part)  two.  The  upper 
four  are  subdivided  into  five,  of  which  two  are  given  to  the  corona ;  one  to  the  cyma-reversa  and 
fillet,  (one-fourth ;)  one  and  a  half  to  the  cyma-recta ;  and  half  a  part  to  the  fillet.  The  whole 
projection  is  equal  to  the  height,  and  is  divided  into  nine  parts,  each  of  which  forms  one-twelfth 
of  the  diameter.  The  projections  of  the  several  members  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  plate, 
on  which  they  are  fully  figured  and  described. 

(94) 


i?*L«  31111 


"^ 


liir; 


+     i 


■•J 


THE    FIVE     ORDERS    OF    ARCHITECTURE.  95 


THE  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 

Divide  the  whole  height  given  for  this  order  into  six  parts,  of  which  two  are 
for  the  height  of  the  pedestal.  The  remaining  eight  parts  are  then  divided  into 
six,  of  which  five  form  the  length  of  the  column,  with  its  capital  and  base ;  the  other 
is  the  height  of  the  entablature.  The  length  of  the  column  is  subdivided  into  twenty 
parts;  two  of  these  will  be  the  diameter,  by  which  several  of  the  minor  parts  are 
proportioned. 

The  height  of  the  entablature  is  divided  into  six  parts,  of  which  two  are  allotted 
to  the  architrave,  one  and  a  half  to  the  frieze,  and  two  and  a  half  to  the  cornice. 

The  architrave  projects  to  one-fourth  of  its  height,  and  the  projection  of  the 
cornice  and  its  height  are  equal. 

The  whole  height  of  the  pedestal  has  seven  divisions,  of  which  two  are  given  to 
form  that  of  the  base  and  plinth,  four  for  that  of  the  dado,  and  one  for  the  cap. 

The  column  is  diminished  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  preceding  orders.       And  if 
half  of  the  height  of  the  pedestal  be  taken,  it  will  give  the  projection  of  the  base  of    ^ 
the  column  and  the  breadth  of  the  dado  of  the  pedestal. 

The  base  of  the  pedestal  forms  a  third  of  the  two  parts  allotted  for  the  base  and 
plinth,  and  its  projection  equals  its  height.  That  of  the  cap  is  three-fourths  of  its 
height. 


PLATE    XLII. 

THE    CORINTHIAN    PEDESTAL,    WITH    PART    OF    THE    SHAFT    OF    THE    COLUMN 

AND    ITS    BASE. 

The  altitude  of  the  base  is  half  the  diameter  of  the  column,  and  its  projection  is  equal  to 
half  the  height  of  the  pedestal,  which  also  gives  the  breadth  of  the  dado. 

To  find  the  proportions  of  the  several  members  of  the  pedestal,  the  height  of  the  base  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  of  which  one  is  given  to  the  torus  and  fillet,  (one-fourth;)  another  to  the 
cyma;  and  the  third  to  the  ogee  and  fillet,  (of  which  the  latter  receives  one-fourth.)  The  whole 
projection  of  the  pedestal  is  equal  to  its  height,  and  is  divided  into  five  parts,  two  of  which  are 
given  to  that  of  the  ogee ;    two  to  the  cyma ;    and  one  to  the  torus. 

The  height  of  the  cap  is  divided  into  four  parts,  of  wliich  half  a  part  is  given  to  the  hollow, 
and  one-fourth  to  its  fillet ;  one  part  to  the  cyma,  and  one-fourth  to  its  fillet ;  one  entire  part  to 
the  corona;  and  one  to  the  ogee  and  fillet.  The  whole  projection  is# equal  to  three-fourths  of 
the  height,  and  is  set  off  in  minor  subdivisions,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  plate. 

The  height  of  the  base  of  the  column  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of  which  one  is  allotted 
to  the  plinth.  The  two  upper  parts  are  again  subdivided  into  five,  of  which  the  lower  torus  receives 
one  and  a  half ;  the  upper  torus  one ;  the  scotia  one ;  and  the  remaining  one  and  a  half  are 
distributed  among  the  beads  and  fillets.  The  proportions  of  these  minor  divisions  are  fully 
described  on  the  plate.  The  whole  projection  is  divided  into  three  parts,  as  will  be  easily  com- 
prehended by  referring  to  this  plate,  in  connection  with  the  arrangement  of  the  preceding  bases. 
If  the  columns  of  this  order  be  fluted,  the  flutes  must  be  similar  in  form  and  number  to  those  of 
the  Ionic  order. 

(96) 


r.-,i.-.t..i  i\  I'.,,-.- 


^P 


THE     PIA'E     ORDERS     OF     ARCHITECTURE.  97 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER. 


This  order  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  buildings  in  which  gaiety  or  magnificence 
is  required.  The  ancients  employed  it  in  temples  dedicated  to  Venus,  to  Flora, 
Proserpine,  and  the  nymphs  of  fountains ;  because  the  flowers,  foliage,  and  volutes, 
with  which  it  is  adorned,  seemed  well  adapted  to  the  delicacy  and  elegance  of  such 
deities. 

Being  the  most  splendid  of  the  Five  Orders,  it  is  also  extremely  appropriate  for 
the  decoration  of  palaces,  galleries,  theatres,  banqueting-rooms,  and  other  places  devoted 
to  festive  mirth  or  convivial  reci'eation. 

"The  Corinthian  order,"  says  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  "is  a  column  lasciviously  or 
extravagantly  decked,  like  a  wanton  courtezan  or  woman  of  fashion.  Its  proportions 
are  elegant  in  the  extreme ;  every  part  of  the  order  is  divided  into  a  great  variety 
of  members,  and  abundantly  enriched  with  a  diversity  of  ornaments." 

"The  ancients,"  saya  De  Cambrai,  "aiming  at  the  representation  of  a  feminine 
beauty,  omitted  nothing  either  calculated  to  embellish  or  capable  of  perfecting  their 
work;"  and  he  observes,  "that  in  the  many  examples  left  of  the  order,  such  a  pro- 
fusion of  different  ornaments  is  introduced  that  they  seem  to  have  exhausted  imagina- 
tion in  the  contrivance  of  decorations  for  this  master-piece  of  the  art.  Scamozzi  calls 
it  the  Virginal,  and  it  certainly  has  all  the  delicacy  in  its  form,  with  all  the  gaiety, 
gaudiness,  and  affectation  in  its  dress,  peculiar  to  young  women." 


N 


PLATE    XLIII. 

THE     CORINTHIAN    ENTABLATURE. 

The  whole  height  of  this  entablature  is  divided  into  six  parts,  (as  previously  mentioned,)  and 
of  these  two  are  given  to  the  architrave;  one  and  a  half  to  the  frieze;  and  two  and  a  half  to 
the  cornice. 

To  find  the  proportions  of  the  individual  members,  the  two  principal  parts  of  the  architrave 
are  divided  into  four,  which  are  again  subdivided  as  follows:  one-fifth  of  the  lower  division  is 
given  to  the  bead;  of  the  second  part  the  ogee  receives  a  third;  and  the  division  of  the  fourth 
or  upper  part  into  three,  gives  half  a  part  to  the  bead ;  one  and  a  half  to  the  ogee ;  and  one  to 
the  upper  fillet.  The  whole  projection  of  the  architrave  is  equal  to  one-fourth  of  its  height,  of 
which  the  middle  face  receives  one-half.      For  the  lesser  projections  refer  to  the  plate. 

The  height  of  the  cornice  is  divided  into  eight  parts,  of  which  one  is  given  to  that  of  the 
ogee  and  fillet,  (one-fourth ;)  one  to  the  dentils ;  and  another  to  the  ovolo  and  fillet.  The  remain- 
ing five  must  be  again  divided  into  six,  which  are  apportioned  as  follows :  one  and  one-fourth  to 
the  modillion ;  one-fourth  to  its  fillet ;  half  a  part  to  the  ogee  and  fillet ;  one  and  a  half  to  the 
corona ;  half  a  part  to  the  ogee ;  one-fourth  to  its  fillet ;  one  and  one-fourth  to  the  cyma-recta ; 
and  half  a  part  to  its  fillet.  The  whole  projection  of  the  cornice  is  equal  to  its  height,  and 
being  divided  into  a  similar  number  of  parts,  the  projections  of  the  several  membei's  will  be  easily 
apparent  on  inspection. 

On  this  plate  is  also  shown  the  plan  of  the  entablature,  on  which  the  construction  of  the 
modillions,  dentils,  coffers,  etc.,  is  explained. 

(98) 


(P[LoiXlL3]a" 


^  h  R1  Tvm "  -  ii  1  niTA©  nxTin  m : 


6  - 


'n 


6 


"i: 


7.-«-  ri     2  - 


THE     FIVE     ORDERS     OF     ARC  HITEC  f  U  RE.  99 


THE    riUNCirAL    TARTS    OF    THE    COMPOSITE    OllDER. 

The  given  height  proposed  for  this  whole  order  is  divided  into  ten  parts,  of  which 
two  are  allowed  for  that  of  the  pedestal.  The  remaining  eight  parts  are  then  divided 
into  six,  of  which  one  forms  the  height  of  the  entablature,  and  five  are  given  to  the 
length  of  the  column,  with  its  capital  and  base.  The  diameter  of  the  column,  at 
its  base,  is  equal  to  a  tenth  part  of  its  whole  length;  thus  the  pedestal  is  three,  the 
column  ten,  and  the  entablature  two  diameters  in  height  respectively. 

The  height  of  the  entablature  is  divided  into  six  parts,  of  which  two  are  given 
to  the  architrave;  one  and  a  half  to  the  frieze;  and  two  and  a  half  to  the  cornice. 
The  projection  of  the  architrave  is  two-sevenths  of  its  height,  and  that  of  the  cornice 
is  equal  to  its  height. 

The  whole  height  of  the  pedestal  is  divided  into  seven  parts,  of  which  two  are 
allotted  to  the  base  and  plinth;   four  to  the  dado;    and  one  to  the  cap. 

The  column  is  diminished  as  in  the  preceding  order;  and  the  diameter  at  the 
base  is  divided  into  five  parts,  of  which  one  is  added  to  each  side  for  its  projection. 
This  also  gives  the  breadth  of  the  dado  of  the  pedestal. 

Of  the  two  parts  given  to  the  height  of  the  base  and  plinth  of  the  pedestal, 
the  base  itself  receives  one-third,  and  its  projection  is  equal  to  its  height;  the  pro- 
jection of  the  cap  equals  four-fifths  of  its  height. 


PLATE    XLIV. 

TUE    COMPOSITE    PEDESTAL,   WITH    PART    OF    THE    SHAFT    OF    THE    COLUMN 

AND    ITS    BASE. 

The  height  of  the  base  of  the  column  is  equal  to  one-half  of  its  diameter;  and  its  projec- 
tion on  either  side  equals  one-fifth  part  of  the  whole  diameter  of  the  shaft.  The  breadth  of  the 
whole  of  the  pedestal  is  limited  to  the  projection  of  the  base. 

To  find  the  proportions  of  the  particular  members  of  the  pedestal  in  height,  that  of  the  base 
is  divided  into  four  parts,  of  which  one  is  given  to  the  torus ;  one-third  of  one  part  to  the  fillet ; 
one  and  two-thirds  to  the  cyma;  and  the  remaining  part  to  the  astragal  and  fillet.  The  height 
of  the  cap  is  divided  into  five  parts,  of  which  one  is  given  to  the  astragal  and  fillet,  (one-third ;) 
two  to  the  cyma  and  fillet,  (half  a  part ;)   one  to  the  corona ;   and  one  to  the  ogee  and  fillet. 

The  whole  projection  of  the  base  of  the  pedestal  is  equal  to  its  height;  its  divisions  are 
five ;  and  the  minor  projections  are  easily  apparent  on  the  plate.  That  of  the  cap  is  equal  to 
four-fifths  of  its  height,  and  the  projections  of  the  several  members  arc  so  clearly  shown,  as  to 
render  further  explanation  unnecessary. 

The  height  of  the  base  of  the  column  is  divided  into  six  parts.  Of  these  the  plinth  receives 
one  part  and  three-fourths  ;  the  lower  torus  one ;  the  fillet  one-fourth ;  the  scotia  half  a  part ; 
and  one  is  distributed  among  the  astragals  and  fillets ;  the  upper  scotia  then  receives  half  a  part ; 
the  fillet  one-fourth ;  and  the  upper  torus  the  remaining  three-fourths.  The  upper  fillet,  which  is 
part  of  the  column,  is  twice  the  height  of  that  immediately  beneath  the  torus. 

The  whole  projection  is  divided  into  three  parts,  and  its  minor  divisions  are  easily  under- 
stood by  an  examination  of  the  plate,  and  a  reference  to  the  preceding  instances. 

When  the  column  is  fluted,  the  flutes  should  amount  to  twenty-four,  as  in  the  Corinthian 
order. 

(100) 


I',  ,1,-1. .I.N  lli.s.- 


TUE     FIVE     OllDEUS     OF     A  U  C  IIITE  C  T  U  RE.  IQl 


GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  COMPOSITE  ORDER. 


It  is  manifest,  from  an  examination  of  the  best  worlcs,  that  this  order  is  com- 
pounded chiefly  of  the  component  parts  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  without  possessing 
the  native  simplicity  pertaining  to  either  of  these  classical  orders.  The  Composite 
is,  nevertheless,  an  order  of  considerable  merit,  which  on  many  occasions  will  claim 
a  decided  preference,  and  cannot  fail  to  be  duly  appreciated  when  judiciously  introduced. 

The  Romans  introduced  the  Composite  more  frequently  in  their  triumphal  arches 
than  in  any  other  buildings;  meaning,  as  Serlio  supposes,  to  express  their  dominion 
over  other  nations,  the  inventors  of  the  orders  of  which  this  is  composed.  It  may 
with  great  propriety  be  used  wherever  elegance  and  magnificence  are  to  be  united ; 
but  more  especially  in  buildings  designed  to  commemorate  great  and  signal  events,  or 
to  celebrate  the  combined  achievements  of  conquerors  and  legislators. 


It  may  here  be  remarked,  that  the  ingenuity  of  man  has,  hitherto,  not  been  able 
to  produce  a  sixth  order,  though  large  premiums  have  been  ofiered,  and  numerous 
attempts  have  been  made  by  minds  of  first-rate  talent  to  accomplish  it.  Such  is  the 
fettered  state  of  human  imagination,  such  the  scanty  store  of  its  ideas,  that  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  have  ever  been  uppermost;  and  all  that  has  yet  been  produced 
amounts  to  nothing  more  than  different  arrangements  and  combinations  of  their  parts, 
with  some  trifling  deviations  scai'cely  deserving  notice ;  the  whole  generally  tending 
more  to  diminish  than  to  increase  the  beauties  of  the  ancient  orders. 


PLATE  XLV. 

TUE  COMPOSITE  ENTABLATURE. 

The  whole  height  is  divided  into  six  parts,  of  which  (as  previously  mentioned)  two  are  given 
to  the  architrave ;    one  and  a  half  to  the  frieze ;    and  two  and  a  half  to  the  cornice. 

To  find  the  proportions  of  the  several  members,  the  architrave  is  divided  into  seven  parts,  of 
which  two  arc  given  to  the  first  face ;  half  a  part  to  the  ogee ;  two  and  a  half  to  the  second 
face;  and  the  remaining  or  upper  two  parts  are  subdivided  into  five,  of  which  the  bead  has  half  a 
part;  the  ovolo,  one  and  a  half;  the  hollow,  two;  and  the  fillet,  one.  Its  whole  projection  is 
equal  to  two-sevenths  of  its  height,  and  the  minor  divisions  are  set  ofi"  upon  the  plate. 

The  frieze  is  formed  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  of  the  Ionic. 

The  whole  height  of  the  cornice  is  divided  into  ten  minor  parts,  of  which  one-fourth  part  is 
given  to  the  fillet ;  one-fourth  to  the  bead,  and  one  part  to  the  ogee ;  another  to  the  first  face  of 
the  modillions,  and  half  a  part  to  the  ogee ;  one  and  one-fourth  part  to  the  second  face ;  one-fourth 
to  the  fillet ;  half  a  part  to  the  ovolo ;  two  parts  to  the  corona ;  one  to  the  cyma-reversa  and 
fillet ;    one  and  a  half  to  the  cyma-recta ;   and  half  a  part  to  the  fillet. 

The  whole  projection  of  the  cornice  is  equal  to  its  height,  and  is  divided  into  a  similar 
number  of  parts,  by  which  the  projections  of  the  several  members  are  regulated,  as  may  be  seen 
on  the  plate ;    on  which  is  also  shown  the  plan  of  the  entablature,  with  the  modillions,  etc. 

(102) 


ii='lL>.Jii,V 


THE 


PROPORTIONS    OF   THE    ORDERS; 


WITH      THE 


PRACTICE    OF    PILASTERS. 


In  the  opinion  of  Scamozzi,  columns  should  not  be  less  than  seven  of  their  diame- 
ters in  height,  nor  more  than  ten ;  the  former  being,  according  to  him,  a  good  proportion 
in  the  Tuscan,  and  the  latter  in  the  Corinthian  order.  The  practice  of  the  ancients 
in  their  best  works  being  conformable  to  this  jsrecept,  we  have  generally  followed  the 
doctrine  of  Vitruvius,  and  made  the  Tuscan  seven  diameters,  the  Doric  eight,  the  Ionic 
nine,  as  Palladio  and  Vignola  have  done,  and  the  Corinthian  and  Composite  ten;  which 
last  is  a  mean  between  the  proportions  observed  in  the  Pantheon  at  Rome  and  in 
the  three  columns  in  the  Campo  Vaccino,  both  of  which  are  esteemed  excellent 
examples  of  the  Corinthian  order. 

The  common  practice  of  the  ancients  was  to  make  the  height  of  the  entablature 
equal  to  one-quarter  of  the  height  of  the  column;  and  in  all  the  various  descriptions 
of  entablature  they  seldom  exceeded  or  fell  short  of  this  measure. 

Nevertheless,  Palladio,  Scamozzi,  Alberti,  Barbaro,  Cataneo,  Delorme,  and  others 
of  the  modern  architects,  have  made  their  entablatures  much  lower  in  the  Ionic,  Com- 
posite, and  Corinthian  orders,  than  in  the  Tuscan  or  Doric.  This,  on  some  occasions, 
may  not  only  be  excusable,  but  highly  proper ;  particularly  where  the  intercolumnia- 
tions  are  wide,  as  in  a  second  or  third  order,  in  private  houses,  or  inside  decorations, 

(103) 


PLATE    XLVI. 

THE    CAPS    AND    BASES    TO    THE    PEDESTALS    OF    THE    SEVERAL    ORDERS, 

IN    DETAIL. 

The  purpose  of  this  plate  is  to  show  these  portions  of  the  pedestals  on  an  enlarged  scale, 
still  preserving  the  method  of  proportioning  them  previously  observed,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
more  easily  comprehended,  and  the  relation  of  their  members  to  the  several  scales  of  height  and 
projection  rendered  more  distinctly  perceptible. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  height  of  the  caps  exceeds  that  of  the  bases  by  one-half,  except  in 
the  case  of  those  of  the  Tuscan  order,  which  are  equal. 

(104) 


-=j 


\ 


I 


ii 


TUE     PROrORTIONS     OF     THE     ORDERS.  105 

where  lightness  should  be  preferred  to  dignity;  and  where  expense,  with  every  impedi- 
ment to  the  convenience  of  the  fabric,  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Perrault,  in  all  his  orders  except  the  Doric,  divides  the  whole  height  of  the 
entablature  into  ten  equal  parts,  three  of  which  he  gives  to  the  architrave,  three  to 
the  frieze,  and  four  to  the  cornice ;  and  in  the  Doric  order  he  divides  the  whole  height 
of  the  entablature  into  eight  parts,  of  which  two  are  given  to  the  architrave,  three 
to  the  frieze,  and  three  to  the  cornice. 

These  measures  deviate  very  little  from  those  observed  in  many  of  the  antiques 
now  extant  at  Kome,  where  they  have  stood  the  test  of  many  ages;  and  their  sim- 
plicity renders  them  singularly  useful  in  composition,  as  they  are  easily  remembered 
and  applied. 

Of  the  two  modes  used  by  ancient  and  modern  architects  to  determine  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  mouldings,  and  the  lesser  parts  that  compose  an  order,  perhaps  the  sim- 
plest, readiest,  and  most  accurate  is  by  means  of  the  module,  or  semi-diameter  of  the 
column,  taken  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  and  divided  into  thirty  minutes. 

Many  prefer  the  method  of  measuring  by  equal  parts,  affirming  that  beauty 
depends  on  the  simplicity  and  accuracy  of  the  relations  existing  between  the  whole 
body  and  its  members,  and  alleging  that  dimensions,  which  have  evident  affinities,  are 
better  remembered  than  those  whose  relations  are  too  complicated  to  be  immediately 
apprehended. 

Columns,  in  imitation  of  trees,  from  which  they  derive  their  origin,  are  tapered 
in  the  shafts.  In  the  specimens  of  antiquity  the  diminution  is  variously  performed; 
sometimes  beginning  from  the  foot  of  the  shaft,  at  others  from  one-quarter,  or  one-third 
of  its  height;  the  lower  part  being  left  perfectly  cylindrical.  The  former  of  these 
methods  was  most  in  use  among  the  ancients,  and,  being  the  most  natural,  seems  to 
claim  the  preference,  though  the  latter  has  been  almost  universally  practised  by  modern 
architects,  from  a  supposition,  perhaps,  of  its  being  more  graceful,  as  it  is  more 
marked  and  strikingly  perceptible. 

"The  first  architects,"  says  Monsieur  Auzott,  "probably  made  their  columns  in 
straight  lines,  in  imitation  of  trees,  so  that  their  shaft  was  the  frustrum  of  the  cone ; " 
but  finding  this  form  abrupt  and  disagreeable,  they  made  use  of  some  curve,  which, 
springing  from  the  extremities  of  the  superior  and  inferior  diameters  of  the  column, 
swelled  beyond  the  sides  of  the  cone,  and  thus  gave  the  most  pleasing  feature  to  the 
outline.      Vitruvius,  in  the  second  chapter  of  his  third  book,  mentions  this  practice; 

0 


PLATE    XLVII. 

THE    BASES    OF    THE    COLUMNS    BELONGING    TO    THE    SEVERAL    ORDERS, 

SHOWN    IN    DETAIL. 

All  the  bases  are  equal  in  height  to  one-half  of  the  diametei'  of  their  columns;  and  their 
projection  equals  one-fifth  of  the  whole  diameter.  The  mouldings  of  these  are  easily  formed, 
being  mostly  semicircles,  except  the  scotias,  which  are  struck  from  two  centres.  Take  as  an 
instance  the  scotia  in  the  Boric  order,  the  height  for  which  being  given,  divide  it  into  three,  and 
on  the  line  which  separates  the  upper  of  these  parts  from  the  two  lower,  and  perpendicular  to  the 
fillet,  inscribe  the  centre  for  the  first  quarter  circle ;  the  same  distance  repeated  on  the  line  out- 
ward, will  give  the  centre  for  the  other  quarter,  and  at  the  same  time  limit  the  projection  of  the 
lower  fillet.      This  method  is  applicable  to  all  the  other  orders. 

(100) 


THE    PROPORTIONS    OP    THE    ORDERS.  107 

but  in  so  obscure  and  cursory  a  manner,  that  his  meaning  has  not  been  clearly  under- 
stood; and  several  of  the  modern  architects,  intending  to  conform  themselves  to  his 
doctrine,  have  made  the  diameters  of  their  columns  greater  in  the  middle  than  at  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft.  Lconi  Baptista  Alberti,  with  several  of  the  Florentine  and 
Roman  architects,  carried  this  practice  to  a  very  absurd  extent,  for  which  they  have 
been  justly  blamed,  it  being  neither  natural,  reasonable,  nor  beautiful." 

Sir  Henry  Wotton,  in  his  Elements  of  Arckiiecture,  says,  in  his  usual  quaint  style: 
'•'  And  here  I  must  take  leave  to  blame  a  practice  groioie  (I  know  not  how)  in  certaine 
places  too  familiar,  of  making  pillars  swell  in  the  middle,  as  if  they  were  sicke  of  some 
tympany,  or  dropsie,  without  any  authentique  pattern  or  rule  to  my  knowledge,  and 
unseemly  to  the  very  judgment  and  sight." 

And  Monsieur  Auzott  further  observes :  "  That  a  column,  supposing  its  shaft  to 
be  the  frustum  of  a  cone,  may  have  an  additional  thickness  in  the  middle  without 
being  swelled  in  that  part  beyond  the  bulk  of  its  inferior  parts;"  and  supposes  the  addi- 
tion mentioned  by  Vitruvius  to  signify  not  anything  more  than  the  increase  toward 
the  middle  of  the  column,  occasioned  by  changing  the  straight  line,  which  at  first  was 
in  use,  into  a  curve,  and  thus,  by  dexterous  means,  to  "snatch  a  grace  beyond  the 
reach  of  art." 

This  supposition  is  extremely  just,  and  founded  upon  what  is  observable  in  the 
works  of  antiquity,  where  there  is  not  any  single  instance  of  a  column  thicker  in 
the  middle  than  at  the  bottom,  though  all  or  most  of  them  have  the  swelling  hinted 
at  by  Vitruvius,  all  of  them  being  terminated  by  curves — some  few  granite  columns 
excepted,  which  are  bounded  by  straight  lines;  a  proof,  perhaps,  of  their  antiquity, 
or  of  their  having  been  wrought  in  the  quarries  of  Egypt  by  unskillful  workmen. 

In  the  remains  of  antiquity  the  quantity  of  diminution  at  the  upper  diameter 
of  columns  is  various,  but  seldom  less  than  one-eighth  of  the  inferior  diameter  of  the 
column,  nor  more  than  one-sixth  of  it.  The  last  of  these  is,  by  Vitruvius,  esteemed 
the  most  perfect;  and  Vignola  has  employed  it  in  four  of  his  orders,  as  we  have  in 
all  of  them,  there  being  no  reason  for  diminishing  the  Tuscan  column  more,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  diameter,  than  any  of  the  others. 

Our  intention  being  to  give  an  exact  idea  of  the  orders  of  the  ancients,  they  are 
represented  elsewhere  in  this  work  under  such  figures  and  proportions  as  appear  to 
have  been  most  in  use  in  the  esteemed  works  of  the  Romans  and  Grecians,  who,  in 
the  opinions  of  the  most  eminent  writers,  carried  Architecture  to  its  highest  degree 


PLATE    XLVIII. 

THE   ARCHITRAVES  BELONGING  TO  EACH  OF  THE   ORDERS,   SHOWN    IN    DETAIL. 

On  this  plate  the  heights  of  the  architraves  of  the  Tuscan  and  Doric  orders  are  each  divided 
into  six  parts,  and  then  with  some  minor  subdivisions  in  those  of  the  Doric,  the  mouldings  are  set 
off,  as  is  apparent  on  the  plate. 

The  next  two — the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders — have  each  of  theirs  divided  into  four  parts, 
which  are  again  subdivided, — those  of  the  former  into  sixteen,  and  those  of  the  latter  into  twelve ; 
and  by  these  minor  parts,  the  proportions  of  the  several  members  are  regulated. 

The  architrave  of  the  composite  order  is  divided  into  seven  parts,  the  upper  two  of  these 
being  further  subdivided  into  five;  and  by  these  several  divisions  the  heights  of  the  several  mem- 
bers are  regulated. 

All  the  projections  are  set  off  from  the  lower  or  first  face,  and  in  the  first  two  orders,  each 
of  these  is  equal  to  one-sixth  of  the  height ;  in  the  succeeding  two,  to  one-fourth ;  and  in  the  last, 
to  two-sevenths  of  the  height. 

All  the  minutice  of  these  are  plainly  shown  by  the  minor  divisions  and  dotted  lines  on  the 
plate. 

(108) 


■s'i...i±.wyn 


THE     PROPORTIONS     OP     THE     ORDERS.  109 

of  perfection.  It  must  not,  however,  be  imagined  that  the  same  general  proportions 
will,  on  all  occasions,  succeed.  Those  in  our  first  series  have  been  taken  chiefly 
from  the  temples  and  other  public  structures  of  antiquity,  and  may  be  employed  in 
churches  and  other  important  edifices,  where  majesty  or  grandeur  is  required.  Where 
the  whole  composition  is  large,  the  parts  require  an  exti-aordinary  degree  of  boldness 
to  make  them  distinctly  perceptible  from  the  proper  general  points  of  view;  but  in 
less  considerable  edifices,  and  under  various  circumstances,  more  suitable  and  perhaps 
more  elegant  proportions  may  often  be  designed  by  the  ingenuity  of  man. 

THE    PRACTICE    OF    THE    PILASTERS. 

Columns  differ  from  the  pilasters  in  their  plans  only;  the  latter  being  square  or 
rectangular,  whereas  the  former  are  round. 

Pilasters,  when  accompanied  by  columns  in  the  Roman  style,  have  their  bases, 
capitals,  and  entablatures  the  same  as  the  columns,  and  their  component  parts  are 
all  of  similar  heights  and  projections;  and  when  complete,  they  are  identified  by  the 
names  of   Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,   Composite,  and   Corinthian  pilasters. 

"  Of  the  two  opposite  compositions,"  says  Chambers,  "  the  column  is,  without  any 
doubt,  the  most  perfect  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful.  Nevertheless,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  composers  in  Architecture  to  dispense  with  pilasters;  and  upon  most, 
if  not  upon  all  occasions,  they  may  be  employed  with  fitness  and  great  propriety.  In 
numerous  instances,  and  on  various  accounts,  they  are  even  preferable  to  columns." 

Pilasters  are  stated  to  be  of  Roman  invention;  and  doubtless  their  composition 
is  an  improvement  upon  the  Greeks,  who  employed  what  are  called  the  anta; ;  the 
servile  imitation  of  which  is  a  most  objectionable  practice,  and  is  quite  inconsistent 
with  any  regard  to  primitive  types,  from  which  the  Grecian  Architecture  is  supposed 
to  have  originated. 

The  Greeks  employed  these  antas  in  their  temples  to  receive  the  architraves  where 
they  entered  upon  the  walls  of  the  building;  and  in  nearly  all  the  examples  of  the 
antique  the  front  of  the  antge  is  equal  in  diameter  to  the  upper  one  of  the  adjacent 
column ;  the  antae  being  also  of  the  same  width  at  the  top  as  at  the  bottom,  and 
not  diminished  as  in  the  Roman  examples  of  pilasters. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  Romans,  disgusted  with  the  meagre  aspect  of  these  antce 
and  the  want  of  accordance  in  their  bases  and  capitals,  substituted  pilasters  in  lieu 


PLATE    XLIX. 

IMPOSTS    OP    ARCHES,    WITH    THEIR    ARCHITRAVES. 

All  of  tlicso  imposts  arc  equal  in  height  to  one-eighth  part  of  the  opening  of  their  respective 
arches.      And   this  height  is  also  equal   to  the  -width  of  the   pilasters  on  either  side  of  each   arch. 

The  height  is  then  divided  into  three  principal  parts,  each  of  which  is  again  divided  into 
three  smaller  divisions,  so  that  by  reference  to  the  plate  no  difEculty  can  be  experienced  in  setting 
oflf  the  several  members.  The  projections  are  all  similarly  dealt  with,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  their  different  proportions  readily  apparent. 

It  may  also  be  observed  that  the  astragal  at  the  foot  of  the  impost  is  equal  in  height  to  one 
of  the  nine  minor  parts,  and  the  fillet  is  equal  to  half  a  part.  The  projection  of  the  fillet  is 
equal  to  its  height;    and  that  of  the  astragal  exceeds  its  height  by  one -fourth. 

The  architrave  that  circumscribes  each  arch,  more  properly  termed  the  archivoU,  is  propor- 
tioned in  its  width  by  similar  divisions  to  the  foregoing,  and  the  several  projections  are  plainly 
shown  on  the  plate.       The  width  of  the  pilaster  is  equal  to  that  of  the  architrave. 

(110) 


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Corinthian 


(  mn posi  tc . 


THE  PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  ORDERS.  11 

of  them;  which,  being  proportioned  and  decorated  in  a  similar  manner  with  the 
column,  are,  in  the  eyes  of  most  thinking  and  unprejudiced  persons,  more  appropriate 
and  applicable  as  tending  at  once  to  preserve  the  unity  and  harmony  of  effect  in  all 
those  architectural  compositions  in  which  columns  and  pilasters  accompany  each  other. 

"  Several  authors,"  says  Chambers,  "  are  of  different  opinions  about  pilasters  and 
their  application,  and  to  the  end  of  time  such  differences  will  exist  in  the  minds  of 
scientific  men  upon  points  of  taste."  "  A  French  Jesuit,"  says  the  same  intelligent 
writer,  "many  years  ago  published  an  essay  on  Architecture,  which,  from  its  plausi- 
bility, force,  and  elegance  of  diction,  went  through  several  editions,  and  operated  very 
powerfully  on  the  superficial  part  of  European  connoisseurs."  The  Abbe  Laugier,  who, 
it  is  understood,  is  the  author  referred  to,  inveighs  in  the  strongest  terms  against 
pilasters,  and  every  other  architectonic  form,  except  such  as  were  imitated,  by  the  first 
builders  in  stone,  from  the  primitive  wooden  huts;  as  if  in  the  entire  catalogue  of 
arts  Architecture  should  be  the  only  one  confined  to  its  pristine  simplicity,  and  debarred 
from  any  deviation  or  improvement. 

To  pilasters  the  learned  father  objects  because  they  are,  in  his  opinion,  nothing 
better  than  bad  representations  of  columns.  "Their  angles,"  he  says,  "indicate  the 
formal  stiffness  of  art,  and  are  a  striking  deviation  from  the  simplicity  of  nature ;  their 
projections,  sharp  and  inconvenient,  offend  and  confine  the  eye ;  and  their  surfaces, 
without  roundness,  give  to  the  entire  order  a  tame  and  insipid  effect."  They  are  not, 
he  thinks,  susceptible  of  diminution,  one  of  the  most  pleasing  properties  of  columns; 
and,  in  his  opinion,  they  never  can  be  necessary. 

To  assert  that  pilasters  are  not  susceptible  of  diminution  at  once  discovers  very 
little  acquaintance  either  with  books  of  architecture  or  with  buildings.  Innumerable 
are  the  instances  in  the  remains  of  antiquity,  of  their  being  diminished,  particularly 
when  associated  with  columns.  Those  in  the  Temple  of  Mars  the  Avenger,  in  the 
Frontispiece  of  Nero,  in  the  Portico  of  Septimus  Severus,  and  in  the  Arch  of  Constan- 
tino, at  Rome,  are  all  diminished.  Scamozzi  always  gave  to  his  pilasters  the  same  dimi- 
nution as  his  columns ;  Palladio  has  diminished  them  in  all  his  buildings  at  Venice,  and 
Inigo  Jones  has  treated  them  in  a.  similar  manner  in  most  of  his  designs. 

And  if  we  trace  pilasters  back  to  their  origin,  and  consider  them  either  as  the 
representation  of  the  ends  of  partition  walls,  or  trunks  of  trees  reduced  to  the  diameter 
of  the  round  trunk  but  left  square  for  greater  strength,  the  reason  for  diminishing 
will  in  either  case  be  made  apparent. 


PLATE  L. 

CLASSIC  DOORS  AND  WINDOWS. 

Classic  doors  and  windoAVS  have  their  heads  either  square  or  circular,  accordingly  as  they  are 
used  in  the  Greek  or  Roman  orders.  The  latter  form  must  not  be  used,  however,  when  the 
impost  does  not  exceed  the  height  of  a  man.  There  is  no  certain  proportion  for  their  opening, 
but  their  height  generally  equals  twice  their  width,  and  should  never  exceed  two  squares  and 
one-fourth. 

In  this  example  we  present  a  method  of  finding  the  proportions  of  these  openings  by  a 
geometrical  rule. 

'  Make  the  square  A  B  C  D,  each  side  being  equal  to  three  times  the  width  of  the  intended 
opening;  then  draw  the  diagonals  from  A  to  D,  and  B  to  C,  and  their  intersection  at  E  will  give 
a  centre  for  the  pitch  of  the  pediment  F.  The  lines  from  F  to  C  and  D  being  then  drawn,  will 
cut  the  diagonals  at  the  proper  height,  and  also  give  the  width  of  the  opening,  which  will  be  two 
diameters  in  height,  as  is  shown  by  the  circles. 

The  architrave  around  the  opening  is  equal  to  one-sixth  of  its  own  width ;  the  frieze  is  of 
similar  proportion ;  and  that  of  the  cornice  is  one-fourth  part  additional.  The  length  of  the 
elbow  of  the  architrave  is  one-third  of  the  width ;  and  the  width  of  the  pilaster  is  of  the  same 
proportion,  as  will  be  seen  by  inspection. 

(112) 


THE     PROPORTIONS    OF     THE     ORDERS.  113 

It  is  also  a  strange  error  to  suppose,  or  to  assert,  that  pilasters  are  never  necessary, 
but  that  columns  will  at  all  times  answer  the  same  purpose ;  for  at  the  angles  of  most 
architectural  fronts  to  buildings  they  are  indispensably  necessary,  both  for  solidity  and 
beauty.  For  the  angular  support,  having  a  greater  weight  to  sustain  than  any  of  the 
others,  should  be  proportionately  stronger;  so  that  its  diameter  must  be  increased  or 
its  plan  altered  from  the  circle  to  the  square.  The  latter  is  certainly  the  more  rea- 
sonable expedient,  especially  as  it  obviates  a  very  striking  defect  occasioned  by  employ- 
ing columns  at  the  angles  of  buildings,  namely,  that  the  angle  of  the  entablature  is 
left,  as  it  were,  suspended  in  the  air  without  any  apparent  support. 

Engaged  pilasters  may  be  appropriately  employed  in  the  interior  decoration  of 
churches,  galleries,  halls,  and  similar  structures,  in  order  to  economize  space;  for  as 
they  seldom  project  more  than  one-fourth  of  their  diameter,  tliey  occupy  much  less 
extent  than  attached  three-quarter  columns.  They  are  also  introduced  with  great 
propriety  in  exterior  decorations,  very  frequently  with  a  view  to  avoid  superfluous 
expense.  Blondel  says  that  pilasters  may  be  substituted  for  columns  in  the  formation 
of  porticos;  but  among  the  Roman  antiques  no  examples  of  this  sort  are  to  be  found. 

When  pilasters  are  introduced  as  the  chief  ornaments  in  a  composition,  they 
should  always  project  to  at  least  one-quarter  of  their  diameter  from  the  face  of  the 
wall,  as  this  projection  is  necessary  in  order  to  produce  that  degree  of  boldness  so 
requisite  in  buildings  of  a  certain  character;  by  this  means,  also,  the  stems  of  the 
volutes,  and  the  small  leaves  in  flank  of  the  capitals  of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite 
orders,  are  cut  exactly  through  their  centres.  This  method  is  taught  by  Scamozzi, 
and  employed  by  Inigo  Jones  in  several  of  his  compositions. 

But  if  the  cornices  of  the  windows  be  continued  in  the  interpilasters,  as  is  some- 
times the  case;  or  if  there  should  be  cornices  to  mark  the  separation  between  the 
stories,  or  large  imposts  of  arches,  the  projection  must  in  all  such  cases  be  increased, 
provided  that  it  does  not  interfere  with  any  prominent  part  of  the  decorations.  For 
it  is  extremely  offensive  to  an  architectural  eye  to  observe  several  of  the  upper  mould- 
ings of  an  impost  or  cornice  cut  away  perpendicularly,  in  order  to  make  room  for  the 
pilaster,  while  the  cornice  or  impost  on  either  side  projects  considerably  beyond  it. 

When  pilasters  are  placed  closely  behind  columns,  they  should  not  project  beyond 
one-eighth  of  their  diameter,  or  even  so  much,  unless  there  be  imposts  or  continued 
cornices  in  the  interpilasters.  Where  flutings  are  required  to  the  shafts  of  pilasters, 
the  same  proportions  should  be  used  as  in  the  similar  treatment  of  columns. 

p 


PLATE  LI. 

CLASSIC  WINDOWS. 

In  proportioning  windows,  regard  must  be  had  to  the  altitudes  of  the  several  stories  in  an 
edifice. 

This  plate  contains  si.x  designs  of  different  proportions,  some  of  which  are  suitable  to  the 
height  of  any  room. 

No.  1  is  a  circular  window. 

No.  2  is  a  perfect  square. 

No.  3 ;  the  height  is  the  diagonal  of  a  square. 

No.  4 ;  the  height  is  equal  to  a  square  and  two-thirds. 

No.  5 ;  the  height  is  equal  to  a  square  and  three-fourths. 

No.  G  is  equal  in  height  to  two  squares. 

All  of  the  proportions  ^re  fully  described  by  the  dotted  lines.  The  architraves  to  the 
several  windows  are  in  general  equal  to  one-sixth  of  the  width. 

{11-)) 


MOULDINGS    AND    ORNAMENTS. 


Having  in  the  preceding  pages  combined,  in  an  essay  form,  all  that  we  thought 
would  be  most  likely  to  prove  valuable  and  interesting  in  regard  to  the  Orders,  we 
here  purpose  to  conclude  this  important  department  of  our  work  by  prefixing  to  the 
necessary  Definitions  a  few  pertinent  remarks  on  the  theory  of  Mouldings  and  Ornaments. 
Of  Regular  Mouldings  there  are  but  eight,  the  names  of  which  are  the  Ovolo, 
the  Tblon,  the  Cyma,  the  Cavetto,  the  Torus,  the  Astragal,  the  Scotia,  and  the  Fillet. 

The  names  of  these  are  allusive  to  their  forms,  and  their  forms  are  adapted  to 
the  uses  which  they  are  intended  to  serve.  The  Ovolo  and  Talon  being  strong  at 
their  extremities,  are  fit  for  supports.  The  Crjma  and  Cavetto,  though  improper  for 
that  pui'pose,  as  they  are  weak  at  the  extremities  and  terminate  in  a  point,  are  well 
adapted  for  coverings  to  shelter  other  members;  the  tendency  of  their  outlines  being 
very  opposite  to  the  direction  of  falling  water,  which,  therefore,  cannot  glide  along 
their  surface,  but  must  necessarily  drop  from  it.  The  Ibrus  and  Astragal,  shaped 
like  ropes,  are  intended  to  bind  and  strengthen  the  parts  on  which  they  are  employed; 
and  the  use  of  the  Fillet  and  Scotia  is  only  to  separate,  contrast,  and  strengthen  the 
effect  of  other  mouldings,  to  give  a  graceful  turn  to  the  profile,  and  to  prevent  that 
confusion  which  would  result  from  joining  several  convex  members  together. 

That  the  inventors  of  these  forms  meant  to  express  something  by  these  different 
figures  will  scarcely  be  denied;  and  that  the  above  mentioned  were  their  destinations 
may  be  adduced  not  only  from  their  figures,  but  from  the  practice  of  the  ancients  in 
their  most  esteemed  works. 

Mr.  Gwilt  very  justly  observes,  that  the  Ovolo  should  be  used  only  above  the 
level  of  the  eye  of  the  spectator;  that  the  Cavetto  ought  not  to  be  seen  in  bases  or 
capitals;  that  the  Cyma-recta  ought  to  be  used  only  in  crowning  members;  the  Scotia 
below  the  eye;    and  the  Fillet  when  required  to  separate  the  curved  parts. 

Mouldings  are  generally  divided  into  Grecian  and  Roman.  They  differ  mainly 
from  the  fact  that  the  Romans  usually  employed  segments  of  circles  in  their  ornaments, 
while  the  Greeks  often  introduced  parts  of  an  ellipsis,  or  some  other  section  of  a  cone. 


PLATE    LII. 

The  range  of  mouldings  included  under  Fig.  1,  are  of  the  form  known  as  the  echinus,  or 
Grecian  ovolo;  it  is  found  in  the  corona  and  beneath  the  abacus  of  the  Doric  order,  and  is 
frequently  otherwise  applied,  particularly  in  bed-mouldings  for  cornices,  for  which  its  form  is  very 
suitable. 

The  diagram  No.  1  in  this  range  shows  the  method  of  obtaining  the  desired  curve.  Having 
the  given  projection,  C  D,  and  height,  E  C,  divide  the  height  into  four  parts ;  one  of  these,  E  B, 
forms  the  upper  or  receding  portion  of  the  moulding  called  the  quirk.  Divide  B  C  into  five 
parts ;  give  one  of  these  to  the  lower  fillet,  and  two  will  determine  the  distance  of  the  point  4 
from  G.  Set  ofi"  the  point  A  at  a  distance  from  G  equal  to  G  D,  including  the  width  of  the  fillet 
below.  Then  draw  B  4,  and  divide  it  into  four  equal  parts ;  from  D  draw  the  radiating  lines 
D  1,  D  2,  etc. ;  and  from  A  draw  lines  cutting  B  4  in  the  points  1,  2,  3,  and  the  required  curve 
may  then  be  traced  through  the  points  of  intersection  with  D  1,  D  2,  etc. 

The  others  of  this  range  arc  described  on  the  same  principle. 

Fig.  2  exhibits  three  forms  of  the  cyma-recta.  In  No.  1  divide  the  height  and  projection  each 
into  two  equal  parts ;  on  the  line  A  C  set  ofi"  F  A,  G  C,  each  equal  to  one  of  these  parts ;  divide 
II  F,  H  D,  E  L,  into  four  equal  parts ;  from  B  draw  lines  to  the  points  in  H  D  and  E  L ;  then 
from  A  and  0  draw  lines  through  the  points  in  F  H  and  G  L ;  the  intersections  of  these  are 
points  in  the  required  curve  through  which  it  may  be  traced.  No.  2  is  drawn  in  the  same 
manner;  and  No.  3,  where  the  projection  is  much  greater,  is  performed  by  the  subdivisions  of  the 
horizontal  lines,  and  setting  of  the  vertical  points  in  diagonals  H  B  and  F  M. 

The  manner  of  drawing  the  mouldings  in  Fig.  3  will  be  found  in  the  description  of  the  next 
plate. 

No.  1,  Fig.  4,  is  a  Grecian  ovolo,  formed  by  the  intersection  of  radiating  with  horizontal  lines. 
No.  2  is  an  example  of  the  same  with  a  fillet  above.  The  tangent  A  B,  and  the  greatest  pro- 
jection of  the  moulding  at  C  being  given,  from  A  draw  A  D  E,  perpendicular ;  from  C  draw  C  D 
parallel  to  A  B,  making  D  E  and  D  A  equal.  Having  divided  C  B  and  C  D  into  an  equal 
number  of  parts,  draw  lines  from  A  to  the  points  in  G  B ;  then  draw  from  E  lines  through  the 
points  in  C  D ;  through  the  intersections  of  these  with  the  former  the  required  curve  may  be 
traced. 

The  scotia  No.  3  is  formed  on  the  same  principle. 

(116) 


Fill  I 


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_-_c?eri-riiaj.s  Liri,  yj.ti 


MOULDINGS    AND    ORNAMENTS.  117 

varying  from  the  circle.      The  Roman  Ovolo  and   Oavetto  are  never  found  in  Grecian 
Architecture,  nor  the  Greek  Ecliinus  in  Roman ;    the  otliers  they  possess  in  common. 

An  assemblage  of  essential  parts  and  mouldings  is  termed  a  profile.  On  the 
choice,  disposition,  and  proportions  of  these,  depend  the  beauty  or  deformity  of  the 
composition.  The  most  perfect  profiles  are  those  which  consist  of  few  mouldings, 
varied  both  in  form  and  size,  fitly  applied  with  regard  to  their  uses,  and  so  distributed 
that  the  straight  and  curved  ones  succeed  each  other  alternately.  In  every  profile 
there  should  be  a  predominant  member  to  which  all  of  the  others  ought  to  appear 
subservient;  and  where  the  profile  is  considerable,  the  predominant  member  should 
always  be  accompanied  by  one  or  more  principal  members,  calculated  to  attract  the 
eye  and  assist  the  perception  of  the  beholder.  Thus,  in  a  cornice,  the  corona  pre- 
dominates ;  the  modillions  and  dentils  are  principals  in  the  composition ;  the  cyma 
and  cavetto  cover  them;    the  ovolo  and  talon  support  them. 

When  ornaments  are  employed  to  decorate  profiles,  some  of  the  mouldings  should 
always  be  left  plain  in  order  to  form  a  proper  repose;  for  when  all  are  enriched,  the 
figure  of  the  profile  is  lost  in  confusion.  In  the  cornices  of  entablatures  neither  the 
corona,  the  modillion  bands,  nor  the  other  facias  of  the  architraves  should  be  orna- 
mented. Neither  should  plinths  of  columns,  fillets,  or  any  square  members  be  curved. 
For,  generally  speaking,  they  are  either  principals  in  compositions,  or  boundaries  to 
other  parts ;  and,  in  either  instance,  their  figures  should  be  simple,  distinct,  and  unem- 
barrassed. A  distinct  outline,  and  an  equal  distribution  of  enrichments,  should  on 
every  occasion  be  strictly  attended  to. 

Variety  in  ornaments  should  never  be  carried  to  excess.  Those  of  the  mouldings, 
in  particular,  should  be  simple,  uniform,  and  never  composed  of  more  than  two  different 
representations  on  each  moulding;  these  ought  to  be  cut  equally  deep,  formed  of  the 
same  number  of  parts,  and  all  nearly  of  the  same  dimensions,  so  that  the  eye  may  not 
be  more  strongly  attracted  by  any  particular  part  than  by  the  entire  composition. 

It  is  further  to  be  remarked,  that  ornaments  should  partake  of  the  character  of 
the  order  they  enrich.  Those  applied  to  the  Doric  and  Ionic  orders  should  be  of 
the  simplest  forms,  and  of  larger  size  than  those  employed  in  the  Corinthian  and  Com- 
posite. With  regard  to  the  execution  of  ornaments  it  is  to  be  remembered,  that  as 
in  sculpture  drapery  is  not  esteemed  unless  its  folds  are  contrived  to  grace  and  indicate 
the  parts  it  covers,  so  in  Architecture  the  most  delicate  and  classic  ornaments  lose  all 
their  value,  if  they  load  or  confuse  the  forms  they  are  intended  to  enrich  and  adorn. 


PLATE    LIII. 

Exhibits  a  variety  of  mouldings,  the  curves  of  which  arc  struck  from  centres.  They  describe  the 
Roman  ovolo ;  the  points  a  and  h  being  given  at  each  extremity  of  the  curve,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  bear  in  mind  that  this  moulding  is  either  a  quadrant,  or  some  part  of  a  circle  greater  or 
less  than  a  quadrant ;  hence  the  variation  of  the  centre  from  which  it  is  struck  depends  on  the 
amount  of  projection  desired  to  be  given  in  proportion  to  the  height,  as  shown  by  the  examples 
A,  B,  C. 

The  manner  of  describing  the  cavetto  or  hollow  is  very  simple,  and  is  fully  represented  by 
the  examples  D,  E,  and  F. 

To  describe  the  cyma-recta  G,  the  points  a  and  h  being  given,  join  a  and  5,  bisect  ah  in  e ; 
from  the  points  J,  c,  and  a  describe  arcs  cutting  each  other  in  c  and  d ;  from  the  centres  c  and  d, 
and  with  the  same  radius,  draw  the  curves  h  e  and  a  e,  which  gives  the  required  cyma-recta.  The 
cyma-reversa  or  ogee,  H,  is  drawn  in  the  same  manner,  except  that  the  position  of  the  centres  is 
reversed. 

The  torus  and  cavetto,  so  frequently  employed  in  the  finishing  of  stairs,  arc  shown  by 
the  example  I. 

J  is  a  semi-hollow. 

K,  a  form  suitable  for  a  bed-mould. 

L,  an  ogee  and  bead. 

(118) 


O^ULJlJli 


SaTYi^  Slo  ait -&xclt-*^ 


DEFINITIONS. 


If  a  Circular  Column  has  no  base,  it  is  called  a  frustum  column;  but  if  it  has 
one,  the  shaft,  base,  and  capital  together,  form  the  Cohimn ;  and  the  mass  supported 
thereby  is  denominated  the  Entablature. 

The  beam,  which  is  presumed  to  rest  upon  the  column,  and  forms  the  lower  part 
of  the  entablature,  is  called  the  Architrave,  or  Epistylium. 

The  space  comprehended  between  the  upper  side  of  the  architrave,  or  epistylium, 
and  the  under  side  of  the  presumed  beam  over  the  joists,  is  called  the  Frieze,  or 
Zophorus. 

The  profile  or  edge  of  the  presumed  inclined  roof,  upheld  by  the  joists  or  cross- 
beams, projecting  beyond  the  face  of  the  frieze  or  zophorus,  is  called  the  Cornice. 

The  thickest  or  lowest  part  of  the  column  is  called  the  lower  diameter ;  and  its 
upper  and  most  slender  part  is  called  the  up'per  diameter. 

Half  of  the  lower  diameter  is  called  a  Module,  which  is  divided  into  thirty  equal 
parts  called  minutes;  by  this  scale  every  part  appertaining  to  the  order  is  regulated, 
both  as  regards  the  altitude  and  projection  of  the  several  component  parts. 

The  depth  of  the  column,  from  the  lowest  part  of  the  architrave  to  the  upper 
diameter,  is  called  the  Capital. 

The  space  comprehended  between  the  upper  and  lower  diameters  of  the  column 
is  called  the  Shaft;  and  the  space  between  the  pedestal,  or  step,  is  called  the  Base; 
if  there  be  none,  the  column  must  of  necessity  rest  upon  the  step,  as  in  Grecian  and 
Doric  examples. 

The  smallest  spaces  between  the  lower  diameters  of  columns,  which  stand  in  the 
same  range,  are  called  Intercolumniations. 

When  intercolumniations  are  equal  to  one  and  a  half  of  the  lower  diameters 
of  columns,  they  are  called  pycnostyle,  or  columns  set  thickly. 

When  the  intercolumniations  are  equal  to  two  of  the  lower  diameters,  they  are 
called  systyle. 

(119) 


120  DEFINITIONS. 

When  the  intercolumniations  are  equal  to  two  and  one  quarter  of  the  lower 
diameters,  they  are  called  eustyle. 

When  the  intercolumniations  are  equal  to  three  of  the  lower  diameters,  they  are 
called  decastyle. 

When  the  intercolumniations  are  equal  to  four  of  the  lower  diameters  of  columns, 
they  are  called  ceosystijle,  or  columns  set  thinly;   in  which  case  they  may  be  coupled. 

When  porticos  consist  of  four  columns,  with  three  intercolumniations,  they  are 
called  tetrastyle ;  with  six  columns,  hexastyle ;  with  eight  columns,  octastyh ;  and  in 
like  manner,  according  to  the  number  of  the  columns,  they  are  identified  by  Latin 
terms,  which  may  be  created  ad  infinitum. 

Porticos  to  public  buildings,  with  six,  eight,  or  ten  columns,  are  the  most  esteemed ; 
yet  among  the  ancient  buildings  beautiful  examples  with  four  columns  only  are  frequent, 
of  which  the  much  admired  Doric  portico  at  Athens,  and  the  Ionic  specimen  on  the 
River  Ilissus,  are  striking  instances. 


/.■> 


GLOSSARY  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  TERMS. 


To  the  Glossary  we  prefix,  in  a  tabular  form,  a  detailed  comparison  of  the  most 
striking  variations  in  what  may  be  termed  the  two  extreme  styles,  the  Grecian  and 
the  Pointed,  or  Gothic. 


GRECIAN. 

The  general  running  lines  are  horizontal. 
Arches  not  necessary. 


An  entablature  absolutely  necessary ;  consisting  al- 
ways of  two,  and  mostly  of  three  distinctive  parts, 
having  a  close  relation  to,  and  its  character  and 
ornaments  determined  by,  the  columns. 

The  columns  can  support  nothing  but  an  entabla- 
ture, and  no  arch  can  spring  directly  from  a  co- 
lumn. 

A  flat  column  may  be  called  a  pilaster. 


The  arch  must  spring  from  a  horizontal  line. 

C  ilumns  the  supporters  of  the  entablature. 

No    projections   like   buttresses,  and    all    projections 

stopped  by  horizontal  lines. 
Arrangement  of  pediment  fixed. 

Openings  limited  by  the  proportions  of  the  column. 

Regularity  of  composition  on  each  side  of  a  centre 
necessary. 

Cannot  form  good  steeples,  because  they  must  re- 
semble unconnected  buildings  piled  on  each  other. 


GOTHIC. 

The  general  running  lines  are  vertical. 

Arches  a  really  fundamental  principle,  and  no  pure 
Gothic  building  or  ornament  can  be  composed 
without  them. 

No  such  thing  as  an  entablature  composed  of  parts ; 
and  what  is  called  a  cornice  bears  no  real  rela- 
tion to  the  shafts  which  may  be  in  the  same 
building. 

The  shaft  can  only  support  an  arched  moulding,  and 
in  no  case  a  horizontal  line. 

Nothing  analogous  to  a  pilaster ;  every  flat  orna- 
mented projecting  surface  is  either  a  series  of 
panels  or  a  buttress. 

No  horizontal  line  necessary,  and  never  any  but  the 
small  cap  of  a  shaft. 

Shaft  bears  nothing  and  is  only  ornamental,  and  the 
round  pier  still  a  pier. 

Buttresses   are   essential   parts,  and    stop   horizontal 

Pediment  only  an  ornamented  end-wall,  and  may  be 
of  almost  any  pitch. 

Openings  almost  unlimited. 

Regularity  of  composition  seldom  found,  and  variety 
of  ornament  universal. 

From  its  vertical  lines,  may  be  carried  to  any  prac- 
ticable height,  with  almost  increasing  beauty. 


PLATE  LIV. 

GEOMETRICAL  PROBLEMS. 

Fig.  1.  To  inscribe  in  a  Circle  a  regular  Hexagon  and  an  Equilateral  Triangle. — Apply  the 
radius  c  a  six  times  to  the  circumference,  and  then  will  be  inscribed  a  regular  hexagon.  Join 
the  alternate  angles  of  the  hexagon,  and  there  -will  be  inscribed  an  equilateral  triangle. 

Fig.  2.    To  inscribe  in  a  Circle  a  Regular  Pentagon. — Draw  two  diameters,  a  h  and  b  i,  per 
pendicular  to  each  other.      Bisect  the  radius  J  e  at  e ;   take  e  d,  equal  to  a  e;    then  from  a,  as  a 
centre,  and  with  the  radius  a  d,  describe  the  arc  d  f,  and  the  chord  a  f  will  be  one  side  of  the 
required  pentagon. 

Fig.  3.  To  inscribe  in  a  Circle  a  Square  and  a  Regular  Octagon. — To  inscribe  a  square,  draw 
two  diameters  at  rightangles  to  each  other,  and  join  their  extremities.  Bisect  the  arc  subtended 
by  one  of  the  sides  of  the  square,  and  the  chord,  a  i  of  half  the  arc,  will  be  the  size  of  the 
octagon  required. 

Fig.  4.  To  make  an  Octagon  out  of  a  Square. — Draw  the  diagonals  /  e  and  d  g ;  from  /  and  e, 
as  centres,  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  one-half  of  the  diagonal,  describe  arcs  cutting  the  sides  of 
the  square  in  a  and  b ;    remove  from  eacli  corner  of  the  square  a  triangle  equal  to  ab  g. 

Fig.  5.  To  draw  a  Segment  by  Rods  to  any  Le^igth  and  Height. — Make  two  rods,  a  b  and  a  d, 
each  being  equal  to  the  base  b  d  oi  the  segment,  to  form  the  angle  bad;  then,  having  them 
secured,  and  placed  as  in  the  figure,  put  a  nail  at  b  and  one  at  d.  Now,  place  a  pencil-point 
at  a,  and  move  the  frame  either  way,  sliding  against  the  nails  at  b  and  d,  and  the  point  a  will 
mark  the  arc  of  the  required  segment. 

Second  Method. — If  the  segment  required  is  too  large  to  be  conveniently  drawn  in  this  way, 
we  may  cut  a  triangular  piece  of  board,  as  shown  at  Fig.  9,  the  height,  i  c,  of  the  triangle  being 
half  the  height  of  the  segment.  Now,  by  putting  a  nail  also  at  a,  we  may,  with  this  triangle, 
draw  half  the  arc  of  the  required  segment  at  a  time,  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  above,  placing  it 
as  shown  by  the  rods  at  e  a  and  e  b. 

Fig.  10.  To  draw  the  Segment  of  a  Circle  by  means  of  Intersecting  Mnes. — Let  b  d  he  the 
base  of  the  segment,  and  a  6  its  height ;  draw  the  chord  a  b,  and  erect  b  m  perpendicular  to  it, 
and  e  b  perpendicular  to  b  d;  divide  6  6  and  6  (Z  each  into  six  equal  parts,  at  the  points  1,  2,  etc. ; 
divide,  also,  a  m  into  six  equal  parts  at  the  points  1',  2',  etc.,  and  draw  the  lines  1  1',  2  2',  etc. ; 
and  their  point  of  intersection  with  the  lines  a  1,  a  2,  etc.,  are  points  of  the  curve ;  trace  the  curve 
through  them,  and  you  will  have  the  half-segment  a  b.  The  other  half  may  be  drawn  in  the 
same  way. 

(122) 


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Fi,i/  4 


T..-.,.:.^-:™  ^".1 


GLOSSARY. 


A. 

Aaron's  Rod. — An  ornamental  figure,  representing  a  rod  Tvitb  a  serpent  twined  about  it ;   called 

by  some  the  Caduceus  of  Mercury. 
Abacus. — The  upper  member  of  the  capital  of  a  column,  serving  as  a  kind  of  crown-piece  in  the 

Grecian  Doric ;  a  collection  of  members  or  mouldings  in  the  other  orders. 
Acanthus. — A  plant,  the  leaves  of  which  are  represented  in  the  Corinthian  order,  etc.      Acanthine 

means  ornamented  with  leaves  of  the  Acanthus. 
Acropolis  ;  from  the  Greek. — The  highest  part  of  a  city ;   the  citadel  or  fortress. 
AcROTERiUM ;  (plural  Acrotria.) — The  extremity  or  vertex  of  anything ;    a  pedestal  or  base  placed 

on  the  angle  or  on  the  apex  of  a  pediment,  which  may  be  for  the  support  of  a  vase  or  statue. 
^Gis. — In  decoration,  a  shield  or  breast-plate,  particularly  that  of  Minerva. 
.^TOMA. — A  pediment,  or  the  tympanum  of  a  pediment. 

Aisle,  or  Aile. — ^A  walk  in  a  church  on  the  side  of  the  nave;   the  wings  of  the  choir. 
Alcove. — A  recess,  or  part  of  a  chamber,  separated  by  an  estrade  or  partition  with  columns. 
Ar^ostyle. — The  greatest  interval  or  distance  that  can  be  made  between  columns. 
Alto-relievo,  or  high  relief. — That  kind  of  sculpture  which  projects  so  much  from  the  surface  to 

which  it  is  attached  as  to  appear  nearly  insulated. 
Amphora;  (plural  Amphorce.) — In  decoration,  a  vase  or  jar  with  two  handles. 
Ancon. — In  decoration,  a  curved  drinking-cup  or  horn. 
Ancones. — Ornaments  depending  from  the  corona  of  Ionic  doorways,  etc. 
Angular  Capital. — The  modern  Ionic,  or   Scamozzian    capital,  which  is  found  alike   on   all   the 

four  faces. 
Annulet,  or  Fillet. — A  small  square  member  in  the  Doric  capital,  under  the  quarter  round. 
ANTiE. — A  species  of  pilasters  common  in  the  Grecian  temples. 
Arc-boutants,  or  Boutants. — Arch-formed  props  in  Gothic  churches,  etc.,  for  sustaining  the  vaults 

of  the  nave.      They  are  at  times  called  flying  buttresses,  and  arch-butments. 
Arch. — Arches  are  either  circular,  elliptical,  or  straight;   the  latter  term  being  technical. 
Architectonic. — Anything  calculated  to  assist  the  architect. 
Architecture. — The  art  or  science  of  designing  and  superintending  edifices. 

(123) 


PLATE    LV. 

THE      ELLIPSE. 

An  Ellipse  is  a  curve,  sucli  that,  if  from  any  point  two  lines  bo  drawn  to  two  fixed  points, 
their  sum  will  be  always  equal  to  a  given  line.  The  fixed  points,  as  0  0'  on  Fig.  1,  are 
called  foci. 

A  diameter  is  any  line  passing  through  the  centre,  and  terminating  in  the  curve.  The 
diameter  which  passes  through  the  foci  is  called  the  transverse,  and  the  one  perpendicular  to  it 
the  conjugate  axis.      Thus,  D  E,  Fig.  1,  is  the  transverse,  and  A  B  the  conjugate  axis. 

Fig.  1.  To  describe  an  UUijJse  with  the  Trammel,  the  Centre  and  Axes  being  given. — Place  the 
trammel  at  the  centre,  as  seen  in  the  figure,  and  so  arrange  the  rod  efg  upon  the  arms,  and  the 
pencil  1/  upon  the  rod,  that  e  g  will  be  equal  to  the  transverse,  and  f  g  equal  to  the  conjugate  axis. 
Move  the  pencil  around  and  it  will  describe  an  ellipse. 

Fig.  2.  To  describe  an  JElUpse  by  intersecting  Lines,  the  Axes  being  given. — Describe  a  rect- 
angle upon  the  axes,  and  divide  the  conjugate  axis  into  equal  parts,  at  the  points  1,  2,  3,  etc. ; 
divide  the  transverse  into  the  same  number  at  the  points  1',  2',  3',  etc. ;  then  draw  the  lines  A  1, 
A  2,  etc.,  B  1',  B  2',  etc.,  and  their  intersections  will  bo  points  of  the  curve.  Trace  the  curve 
through  these  points. 

Fig.  3.  To  describe  a  rampant  Ellipse. — This  problem  is  performed  like  the  preceding,  except 
that  the  parallelogram  a  5  E  D  is  used  instead  of  the  rectangle  ab  d  c,  m  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  4.  The  transverse  and  conjugate  Axis  of  an  Ellipse  being  given,  to  draw  its  Represen- 
tation.— Draw  b  E  parallel  and  equal  to  A  C ;  bisect  it  at  /,  and  draw  A  /  and  b  B  intersecting 
at  k ;  bisect  A  A  by  a  perpendicular,  meeting  A  B  produced  in  c,  and  draw  b  c,  meeting  E  C  in  e ; 
then  from  e,  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  E  h,  and  from  c,  as  a  centre,  describe  the  arc  A  h,  and 
you  will  have  one-fourth  of  the  curve.      Draw  the  other  parts  in  the  same  way. 

Fig.  5.  An  Ellipse  being  given,  to  describe  tvithin  it  another,  having  the  same  Eccentricity. — 
Describe  the  rectangle  a  b  d  c  on  the  transverse  and  conjugate  axis,  and  draw  the  diagonals  a  d 
and  b  c ;  let  A'  B'  be  the  conjugate  axis  of  the  required  ellipse,  and  through  A'  B'  draw  a'  b'  and 
c'  d'  parallel  to   D  E  ;  join  «'  c',  V  d',  and  D'  E'  will  be  the  transverse  axis  of  the  required  ellipse. 

Fig.  6.  An  Ellipse  being  given,  to  find  the  Centre,  Axes,  and  Foci. — Draw  any  two  lines, 
a  c  and  d  e,  parallel,  and  draw  i  k  through  their  middle  points ;  bisect  i  k  at  C,  and  C  will  be  the 
centre. 

From  C  describe  two  arcs,  intersecting  the  curve  at  m  and  n ;  draw  m  n,  and  D  C  E,  perpen- 
dicular to  it,  will  be  the  transverse,  and  A  C  B,  perpendicular,  will  be  the  conjugate  axis. 

From  B,  witli  a  radius  equal  to  C  E,  describe  two  arcs,  intersecting  the  transverse,  and  the 
points  of  intersection  0  and  0'  will  be  the  foci. 

•     (124) 


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GLOSSARY.  125 

Architrave. — A  beam;  that  part  of  an  entablature  which  lies  immediately  upon  the  capital  or 
head  of  the  columns. 

Astragal. — A  small  moulding  whose  profile  is  semicircular,  and  which  bears  also  the  name  of  talon 
or  tendino.  The  astragal  is  often  cut  into  beads  and  berries,  and  used  in  ornamental  entabla- 
tui'es  to  separate  the  faces  of  the  architrave. 

Attic. — A  low  story  erected  over  an  order  of  architecture. 

Attic  Order. — An  order  of  low  pilasters  generally  placed  over  some  other  order  of  columns. 


B. 

Balcony. — A  projection  from  the  surface  of  a  wall,  supported  by  consoles  or  pillars,  and  surrounded 

by  a  balustrade. 
Baluster. — A  small  pillar  or  pilaster,  serving  to  support  a  rail. 
Balustrade. — A  connected  range  of  a  number  of  balusters  on  balconies,  etc. 
Band. — A   term   used   to    express  what   is    generally   called  a  face   or  facia ;    that    from  which   the 

Corinthian    or    other   modillions,  or   the    dentils,  project,  is    called   the    modillion    band,   or    the 

dentil  band,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Base. — The  lower  part  of  a  column,  moulded  or  plain,  on  which  the  shaft  is  placed. 
Basilica. — A  town  or  court  hall ;    a  cathedral ;    a  palace. 

Bas-relief. — The  representation  of   figures  projecting  from  a  background  without  being  detached 
from  it. 

Batter. — When  a  wall  is  built  in  a  direction  that  is  not  perpendicular. 

Battlements. — Indentations  on  the  top  of  a  parapet  or  wall. 

Bay;  (in  G-othic  architecture.) — An  opening  between  piers,  beams,  or  mullions. 

Bay-window. — A  window  projecting  from  the  front  in  two  or  moi-e  planes. 

Belfry. — Anciently  the  Campanile;   the  part  of  a  steeple  in  which  the  bells  are  hung. 

Belvedere. — A  turret,  look-out,  or  observatory ;   generally  very  ornamental. 

Bed-moulding. — The  moulding  between  the  corona  and  frieze. 

Boss;   (in   Gothic   architecture.) — A  sculptured  protuberance   at  the   interjunction  of  the  ribs  in  a 

vaulted  roof. 
BouLDER-WALLS. — Those  Constructed  of  flints  or  pebbles,  laid  in  strong  mortar. 
Bossage;   (a  French  term.) — Any  projection  left  rough  on  the  face  of  a  stone  for  the  purpose  of 

sculpture. 
Broach;  (in  Gothic  architecture.) — A  spire  or  polygonal  pyramid. 
Buttress  ;    (in    Gothic    architecture.) — A  projection    on   the    exterior  of   a  wall   to  strengthen  the 

piers  and  resist  the  pressure  of  the  arches  within. 


PLATE  LVI. 

THE  PARABOLA  AND  HYPERBOLA. 

A  Parabola  is  a  curve,  any  point  of  which  ia  equally  distant  from  a  fixed  point  and  a  given 
line.  Let  AB,  Fig.  1,  be  the  given  line,  and  F  the  fixed  point;  then  for  any  point  of  the  curve, 
as  G,  the  distances  G  F  and  G  C  are  equal.  The  given  line,  A  B,  is  called  the  directrix.  The 
fixed  point,  F,  is  called  the  focus.  The  line  H  D,  drawn  through  the  focus,  and  perpendicular  to 
A  B,  is  called  the  axis.  The  line  m  n,  drawn  through  the  focus,  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  is 
called  the  parameter. 

A  Hyperbola  is  a  curve  in  which  the  difference  of  two  lines,  drawn  from  any  of  its  points 
to  two  fixed  points,  is  constantly  equal  to  a  given  line. 

Fia.  1.  To  describe  a  Parabola. — Take  a  straight  edge,  A  B,  and  T-square,  G  C ;  fasten  at  G 
one  end  of  a  string,  equal  to  G  C,  and  the  other  end  at  F ;  place  a  pencil  against  the  string, 
keeping  it  always  stretched,  and  move  the  square  along  the  straight  edge.  The  pencil  will 
describe  a  parabola. 

Fig.  2.  To  describe  a  Parabola  by  intersecting  Lines. — Take  the  rectangle  A  H  c  a,  and  divide 
the  sides  a  c  and  c  H  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts  at  the  points  1,  2,  3,  1',  2',  3',  etc. ; 
draw  perpendiculars  to  c  H  at  the  points  1',  2',  3',  etc. ;  and,  also,  the  Imes  A 1,  A  2,  etc.,  inter- 
secting them;   trace  the  curve  through  the  points  of  intersection. 

Fig.  3.    To  do  the  same  by  another  method. — Take  the   triangle  Q  c  d,  and    divide   the   sides 

C  c  and   C  d  into   the   same   number  of  equal   parts   at   the   points   1,  2,  3,  etc. ;    draw   the   lines 

1 1,  2  2,  3  3,  etc.,  and  trace  the  curve  so  that  these  lines  shall  be  tangent  to  it,  as  represented  in 
the  figure. 

Fig.  5.  To  describe  a  Eyperbola  by  means  of  intersecting  Lines. — Divide  the  sides  a  c  and  c  B 
of  the  rectangle  A  B  c  a  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts  at  the  points  1,  2,  3,  1',  2',  3',  etc. ; 
produce  B  A  to  C,  and  trace  the  curve  through  the  intersection  of  the  lines  CI,  A 1,  C  2,  A  2,  etc. 

TRACERY. 

Having  given  any  Gothic  Arch,  to  draw  another,  either  Right  or  Banijmnt,  so  that  the  tivo  shall 
intersect  a  Mitre  truly  together.— Let  Fig.  4  bo  the  given  arch.  Draw  the  chord  a  o,  and  divide 
it  into  any  number  of  e([ual  parts,  as  four ;  then,  from  the  point  e,  draw  lines  through  1,  2,  3,  inter- 
secting the  arch  at  h g  f.  Erect  ad  perpendicular  to  a  e,  and  from  o,  through  f  g  h,  draw  lines 
intersecting  the  perpendicular  in  deb.  Now,  let  the  arch,  Fig.  7,  which  we  wish  to  draw  in  con- 
nection with  4,  have  the  same  height,  e  o,  and  a  greater  base,  ae;  draw  the  line  a  o,  and  divide  it 
also  into  four  equal  parts ;  make  the  divisions  on  ad  equal  to  those  on  a  d.  Fig.  4,  and  draw  lines 
from  0  to  the  points  bed.  Having  drawn  lines  from  e,  through  1,  2,  3,  trace  the  curve  o  g  h  a 
through  the  points  of  intersection.  This  will  give  the  desired  arch.  By  similar  construction,  the 
rampant  arch  on  Fig.  6  may  be  made  to  correspond  with  either  Figures  4  or  7. 

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GLOSSARY.  127 


C. 


Cabling. — The  filling  up  of  the  lower  part  of  the  fluting  of  a  column  with  a  solid  cylindrical  piece. 

Capital. — The  head  or  uppermost  part  of  a  column  or  pilaster. 

Cakyatides. — Figui-os  of  women,  which  servo  instead  of  columns  to  support  the  entablature. 

Casement. — A  sash  hung  upon  hinges. 

Cavetto. — A  hollow  moulding,  whose  profile  is  a  quadrant  of  a  circle. 

Cincture. — A  ring,  list,  or  fillet,  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  a  column. 

Chamfer;  (in  Gothic  architecture.) — An  arch,  or  jamb  of  a  door,  canted. 

CiNQUEFOiL ;  (in  Gothic  architecture.) — An  ornamental  figure,  with  five  leaves  or  points. 

Coping  ;  (in  Gothic  architecture.) — The  stone  covering  the  top  of  a  wall  or  parapet. 

Corbel  ;  (in  Gothic  architecture.) — A  kind  of  bracket.  The  term  is  generally  used  for  a  continued 
series  of  brackets  on  the  exterior  of  a  building,  supporting  a  projecting  battlement,  which  is 
called  a  corbel  table. 

Cornice. — The  projection  consisting  of  several  members  which  crowns  or  finishes  an  entablature, 
or  the  body  or  part  to  which  it  is  annexed. 

Corona. — That  flat,  square,  and  massy  member  of  a  cornice,  more  usually  called  the  drip  or  larmier, 
whose  situation  is  between  the  cimatium  above  and  the  bed-moulding  below. 

Corridor. — A  gallery  or  open  communication  to  the  difierent  apartments  of  a  house. 

Crenelle;  (Gothic.) — The  opening  of  an  embattled  parapet. 

Crocket  ;  (Gothic.) — An  ornament  of  leaves  running  up  the  side  of  a  gable,  or  ornamented  canopy. 

Cupola. — A  small  room,  either  circular  or  polygonal,  standing  on  the  top  of  a  dome.  It  is  some- 
times called  a  lantern. 

Cusp;  (Gothic.) — A  name  for  the  segments  of  circles  forming  the  trefoil,  quatrefoil,  etc. 

CrMA,  or  Cimatium. — A  moulding  which  is  hollow  in  its  upper  part  and  swelling  below. 


D. 

Decagon. — A  plain  figure  having  ten  sides  and  angles. 

Decoration. — Anything  that  enriches  or  gives  beauty  and  ornament  to  the  orders  of  architecture. 

Demi-Metope. — The  half   metope  which  is  found  at  the  retiring  or  projecting  angles  of   a  Doric 

frieze. 
Dentils. — Small   square   blocks  or   projections  used   in   the   bed-mouldings  of   the  cornices  in  the 

Ionic,  Corinthian,  Composite,  and  sometunes  Doric  orders. 
Details  of  an  Edifice. — Drawings  or  delineations  for  the  use  of  builders,  otherwise  called  working 

drawings. 
Diagonal  Scale. — A  scale  subdivided  into  smaller  parts  by  secondary  intersections  or  oblique  lines. 


PLATE    LVII. 

To  draw  Arches  of  various  forms,  and  to  find  the  Lines  of  the  Joints  between  the  Arch-stones. 

As  carpenters  are  frequently  called  upon  to  prepare  centering  for  arclies,  and  also  to  cut  out 
patterns  of  the  arch-stones,  to  be  used  by  the  stone-cutter,  we  have  thought  it  expedient  to  intro- 
duce a  plate  which  will  familiarize  the  student  with  the  best  method  of  dividing  and  drawing  arches. 

Fig.  1.  This  is  the  semicircular,  or  perfect  arch.  It  is  drawn  from  the  centre,  C,  and  the 
joints  between  the  voussoirs  are  part  of  the  radii.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  draw  the  radii,  make 
each  line  perpendicular  to  a  tangent,  as  at  t. 

Fig.  2.  This  is  a  diminished,  segmental,  or  imperfect  arch,  being  composed  of  an  arc  less  than 
a  semicircle.  An  easier  method  of  drawing  the  joint  is  here  exhibited.  From  the  points  1  and  3, 
as  centres,  draw  small  intersecting  arcs  above  the  arch ;  and  from  the  point  of  intersection  draw  a 
line  through  the  point  2  bisecting  1,  3 ;    this  will  give  the  line  of  the  joint  correctly. 

Fig.  3.  This  is  a  Moresque,  or  horseshoe  arch.  It  consists  of  an  arc  greater  than  a  semi- 
circle. The  joints  between  the  springers  below  the  centre  must  not  be  drawn  from  the  centre,  as 
C  c,  but  must  be  made  parallel  to  the  imposts,  or  base  line,  D  E,  as  a  b. 

Fig.  4.  The  Elliptical  Arch. — Various  methods  for  drawing  the  ellipse  are  laid  down  in 
Plate  LV.,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  them.  To  draw  the  joints,  let  F  F'  be  the  foci  of  the 
ellipse ;  then  a  line  bisecting  the  angle  F 1  F'  will  give  the  first  joint,  and  so  on.  If  the  curve  is 
to  be  composed  of  a  series  of  arcs  of  a  circle,  the  points  0,  a,  b,  c,  may  be  used  as  centres. 

Fig.  5.  The  Gothic  lancet  arch  consists  of  two  arcs,  the  radii  of  which  are  longer  than  the 
span  AB.      The  joints  are  drawn  from  the  points  oo'. 

Fig.  G.    The  equilateral  arch  is  described  by  radii  equal  to  the  span. 

Fig.  7.    The  obtuse  pointed  arch  is  described  by  radii  shorter  than  the  span. 

Fig.  8.  The  ogee,  contrasted  or  reflected  arch,  is  described  from  four  centres,  two  within  and 
two  without  the  arch,  a,  b,  o,  o'.      The  proportions  may  be  varied  at  pleasure. 

Fig.  9.  The  Tudor  arch  is  described  from  four  centres  within  the  arch,  0, 0',  o,  o'.  For  an 
arch  whose  height  is  half  its  span,  they  may  be  found  thus:  divide  the  base  line  AB  into  three 
equal  parts  at  0  and  0';  then  will  0'  be  the  centre  of  the  arc  Bn;  from  D,  through  0,  draw 
a  line,  and  make  the  distance  from  C  to  o'  equal  to  C  D ;  then  is  o'  the  centre  with  which  to 
describe  the  arc  D  N.  Those  arches  which  have  their  height  greater  or  less  than  half  the  span, 
are  found  by  other  rules. 

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GLOSSARY.  129 

Diameter. — The  line  in  a  circle  passing  from  the  circumference  through  the  centre. 
Diapered;   (in  Gothic  architecture.) — A  panel  or  other  flat  surface,  sculptured  with  flowers. 
DiASTYLE. — That  intercolumniation  or  space  between  columns  which  consists  of  three  diameters. 
Die  or  Dye. — A  naked  square  cube.      Thus  the  body  of  a  pedestal  is  called  its  die.      Some  call 

the  abacus  the  die  of  the  capital. 
Dimension. — In  geometry,  means  either  length,  breadth,  or  thickness. 

Diminution. — A  term  expressing  the  gradual  decrease  of  thickness  in  the  upper  part  of  a  column. 
Dipteral. — A  term  used  by  the   ancients   to  express  a  temple  with  a  double   range  of   columns 

in  each  of   its  flanks. 
Dodecagon. — A  regular  polygon,  with  twelve  equal  sides  and  angles. 
Dodecastyle. — A  building  having  twelve  columns  in  front. 

Dome. — An  arched  or  vaulted  roof,  springing  from  a  polygonal,  circular,  or  elliptical  plane. 
Docks. — Flat  pieces  of  wood  of  the  shape  and  size  of  a  brick,  inserted  in  brick  walls;   sometimes 

called  plugs  or  wooden  bricks. 
Door. — The  gate  or  entrance  of  a  house  or  other  building,  or  of  an  apartment  in  a  house. 
Dormer  Window;  (Gothic.) — A  window  set  upon  the  slope  of  a  roof  or  spire. 
Dormitory. — A  sleeping  room. 
Drawing-Room. — A  large  and  elegant  apartment. 

Dressing-Room. — An  apartment  contiguous  to  the  sleeping  room,  for  the  convenience  of  dressing. 
Drip;  (in  Gothic  architecture.) — A  moulding  much  resembling  the  cimatium  of  Roman  architecture, 

and  used  similarly  as  a  canopy  over  the  arch  of  a  door  or  window. 


E. 

Echinus. — The  same  as  the  ovolo  or  quarter  round;    only  termed  echinus  with  propriety. 

Edging. — The  reducing  the  edges  of   ribs  or  rafters,  so  that  they  may  range  together. 

Elbows  of  a  Window. — The  two  paneled  flanks,  one  under  each  shutter. 

Elevation. — A  geometrical  projection  drawn  on  a  plane,  perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 

Embankment. — An  artificial  mound  of  earth,  stone,  or  other  material. 

Embrasure. — See  Crenelle. 

Encarpus. — The  festoons  on  a  frieze,  consisting  of  fruits,  flowers,  and  leaves. 

Entablature. — The    assemblage   of   parts    supported    by  the   column;    it   consists   of   three — the 

architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice. 
Entail  ;    (in  Gothic  architecture.) — Delicate  carving. 
Entasis. — The  slight  curvature  of  the  shafts  of  ancient  Grecian  columns,  particularly  the  Doric, 

which  is  scarcely  perceptible,  and  beautifully  graceful. 
Entresol. — See  Mezzanine. 

R 


PLATE    LVIII. 

To  describe  the  Intersecting  or  Angle-ribs  of  a  Qroin  standing  upon  an  Octagon  Plan,  the  Side 
and  Body-7-ibs  being  given  both  to  the  same  height. 

Fio.  1  is  a  quadrant  of  the  octagon.  E  is  a  given  body-rib,  wliicli  may  be  either  a  semi-circle 
or  a  semi-ellipse,  and  A  is  a  side-rib  given  of  the  same  height;  D  is  a  rib  across  the  angles. 
Trace  from  E,  the  base  of  both  E  and  D  being  divided  into  a  like  number  of  equal  parts,  and 
divide  the  base  of  the  given  rib  A  into  the  same  number  of  parts.  From  these  points  draw  lines 
across  the  groin  to  its  centre  at  m,  and  from  the  divisions  of  the  base  of  the  rib  D  draw  lines 
parallel  to  the  side  of  the  groin.  Then  trace  the  angle-curves  through  the  quadrilaterals,  and  the 
result  will  give  the  place  of  the  intersecting  ribs.  Draw  the  chords  a  b  and  b  c,  then  mark  the 
moulds  B  and  C  from  E  or  D,  taking  care  not  to  mark  them  from  the  crooked  line  at  the  base, 
but  from  the  straight  chords  ab  and  be. 

To  describe  and  range  the  Angle-ribs  of  a  G-roin  upon  a  Circular  Plan,  the  Side  and 

Body-arches  being  given. 

Fig.  2.  On  this  quadrant,  the  ribs  are  described  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  preceding 
example  for  the  octagon  groin ;  and  the  ranging  is  found  in  a  similar  manner.  E  and  F  are  the 
same  moulds  as  are  shown  at  B  and  D. 

To  find  the  Jack-ribs  of  a  Plaster  Groin  when  the  given  Arch  is  the  Segment  of  a  Circle. 

Fig.  3.  The  ribs  in  this  case  may  be  found  by  the  method  explained  on  Plate  LVI.,  Figures  4, 
6,  and  7,  and  as  shown  at  B  E  and  F  on  the  present  figure ;  also,  we  may  take  the  height  of  the 
segment  A,  and  place  it  from  b  to  c,  at  C  and  D ;  now  take  twice  the  radius  a  c,  at  A,  and  place 
it  from  c  and  c,  the  crowns  of  C  and  D,  to  a  and  d;  the  arches  C  and  D,  which  are  parts  of 
ellipsis,  may  then  be  drawn  by  intersecting  lines,  as  explained  on  Plate  LV.,  Fig.  2.  Either  of 
these  methods  is  much  easier,  in  practice,  than  to  trace  the  ribs  through  ordinates. 

(130) 


ff-'CUlL'iiJUU 


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GLOSSARY.  131 

Epistylium. — The  same  as  Architrave. 

EusTTLE. — That   form   of    intercolumniation   which,  as   its   name  would    import,  the   ancients   con- 
sidered the  most  elegant;    namely,  two  diameters  and  a  quarter  of  a  column. 


Facade. — The  face  or  front  of  any  considerable  building  to  a  street,  court,  garden,  or  other  place. 
Facia. — A  flat  member  in  the  entablature  or  elsewhere;   being,  in  fact,  a  band  or  broad  fillet. 
Fane,   Vane. — A  church ;    a  plate  of  metal  cut  into  some  characteristic  form,  and  turning  on  a 

pivot  to  determine  the  course  of  the  wind. 
Fastigium. — See  Pediment. 

Feather-edged   Boards. — Are  narrow  boards,  made   thin   on   one   edge. 
Festoon. — An  ornament  of  carved  work,  representing  a  wreath  or  garland  of  flowers  or  leaves, 

or  both,  interwoven  with   each   other. 

Fillet. — The  small  square  member  which  is  placed  above  or  below  the  various  square  or  curved 
members  in   an   order. 

FiNlAL ;  (Gothic.) — The  ornament  consisting  usually  of  four  crockets,  which  is  employed  to  finish 
a  pinnacle,  gable,  or  canopy. 

Flank. — The  side  of  an  edifice;  the  least  side  of  a  pavilion,  by  which  it  is  joined  to  the  main 
building. 

Fliers. — Steps  in  a  series  which  are  parallel  to  each  other. 

Flight. — In  stairs,  is  a  series  of  steps  from  one  landing  place  to  another. 

Floor. — The  bottom  of  rooms. 

Flutings. — The  vertical  channels  on  the  shafts  of  columns,  which  are  usually  rounded  at  the 
top  and   bottom. 

Folding-Doors. — Doors  made  to  meet  from  opposite  jambs. 

Foliage. — An  ornamental  distribution  of  leaves  or  flowers  on  various  parts  of  an  edifice. 

Foreshortening. — A  term  applicable  to  drawings  or  designs,  in  which,  from  the  obliquity  of  the 
view,  the  object  is  represented  as  receding  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  plane  of  the  pro- 
jection. 

Foundation. — That  part  of  a  building  or  wall  which  is  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Foot. — A  measure  of  twelve  inches. 

Framing. — The  name  given  to  the  wood-work  of  windows  enclosing  glass,  and  the  outward  work 
of  doors  and  windows,  or  window-shutters,  enclosing  panels ;  and  in  carpentry,  to  the  timber- 
work  supporting  floors,  roofs,  and  ceilings ;  or  to  the  intersecting  pieces  of  timber  forming 
partitions. 

Fret. — A  kind  of  ornamental  work,  laid  on  a  plain  surface.  The  Greek  fret  is  formed  by  a 
series  of   rightangles  of   fillets,  of   various  forms. 


PLATE    LIX. 

The  Plan  and  Inclination  of  an  Ascending  Groin,  one  of  the  Body-rihs,  and  the  Place  of  the 
Intersection  on  the  Plan,  being  given,  to  find  the  Form  of  the  Side-ribs,  so  that  the  Inter- 
section of  the  Arches  shall  lie  in  a  Perpendicular  Plane. 

Divide  half  the  circumference  of  the  body-rib  at  B  into  any  number  of  equal  parts ;  draw 
lines  from  these  points  perpendicular  to  its  base,  and  continue  them  to  the  line  of  intersection  on 
the  plan ;  from  thence,  let  them  be  drawn  at  rightangles  toward  C,  and  make  the  distances  16,  1  e, 
\d,  le,  etc.,  at  C,  equal  to  the  corresponding  distances  at  B ;  then  will  the  curve  abed,  etc.,  be 
the  true  curve  of  the  side-rib.  This  curve  is  a  semi-ellipse,  and  may  be  found  by  intersecting 
lines,  as  at  F,  according  to  the  rules  for  describing  a  rampant  ellipse. 

To  find  the  Moulds  for  placing  the  Jack-ribs. 

At  C  draw  lines  from  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc.,  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  ascent  h,  g,  toward 
D  and  E ;  draw  the  semi-ellipse  A  as  wide  as  the  body-range,  and  as  high  as  ah  at  C ;  continue 
the  ordinates  lb,  Ic,  Id,  etc.,  up  to  A;  bend  a  slip  around  A,  and  mark  upon  it  the  points 
0,  1,  2,  3,  etc. ;  extend  the  slip  upon  the  line  A  6,  at  D  and  E,  and  divide  it  correspondingly ;  now 
through  each  of  these  points  draw  perpendiculars  across  ^6  to  intersect  the  lines  drawn  perpen- 
dicular to  the  rake ;  then  curves  traced  through  the  points  of  intersection  will  give  the  moulds 
for  placing  the  jack-ribs.  The  edges  of  these  moulds,  bent  over  the  body-vault  when  boarded 
in,  will  exactly  coincide  with  the  intersection  of  the  side  and  body-vaults. 

To  find  the  Jack-ribs  of  the  Side-groins, 

Draw  the  number  of  the  jack-ribs  upon  the  arch  B,  at  theii-  proper  distances,  and  take  their 
several  heights,  hi,  hi,  mn,  etc.,  and  set  them  upon  the  arch  G  from  a  to  b,  from  b  to  c,  from 
c  to  d;  draw  lines  through  bed,  parallel  to  the  rake,  and  they  will  show  on  the  curve  the  proper 
length  and  form  of  the  jack-ribs. 

To   bevel  the  Body-ribs. 

Since  all  the  body-ribs  stand  perpendicular  to  the  plan,  the  upper  edge  must  be  beveled  to 
correspond  to  the  rake  of  the  groin.  To  do  this,  let  the  under  edge  1111,  at  B,  of  the  body- 
ribs,  be  beveled  according  to  the  rake,  so  that  they  may  stand  perpendicular;  then  take  a  mould 
from  B,  or  one  of  the  body-ribs  will  answer,  and  place  it  on  each  side  of  the  rib  to  be  cut,  making 
the  lower  beveled  edges  correspond.  The  upper  edges  may  now  be  marked  and  beveled. 
(132) 


[MUQJM 


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■Roiintlvjli  lid  PJujl" 


GLOSSARY.  133 

Frieze. — The  middle  member  of  the  entablature  of  an  order  which  separates  the  architrave  and 
the  cornice. 

Frontispiece. — The  face  or  fore-front  of  an  edifice;    more  generally  applied  as  a  term  to  desig- 
nate the  decorated  entrance. 

Front. — A  name  given  to  the  principal  interior  facade  of  a  building. 

Frustum. — A  piece  cut  oflF  from  a  regular  figure. 

FUNINGS. — Are  flat  pieces  of  timber,  plank,  or  boards,  used  by  carpenters  to  bring  dislocated  work 
to  a  regular  surface. 

Fust. — The  shaft  of  a  column. 


G. 

Gable;   (in  Gothic  architecture.) — The  triangularly-headed  wall  which  covers  the  end  of  a  roof. 

Gable -Window  ;   (Gothic.) — A  window  in  a  gable,  generally  the  largest  in  the  composition. 

Gablet;  (Gothic.) — A  small  gable.      See  Canopy. 

Gage. — In  carpentry,  an  instrument  to  strike  a  line  parallel  to  the  straight  side  of  any  board  or 
piece  of  stuff. 

Gain. — The  beveled  shoulder  of  a  binding-joist. 

Garland;  (Gothic.) — An  ornamental  band,  surrounding  the  top  of  a  tower  or  spire. 

Glyphs. — The  vertical  channels  sunk  in  the  triglyphs  of  the  Doric  frieze. 

Gouge. — A  chisel  of  a  semicircular  form. 

Groin;   (Gothic.) — The  diagonal  line  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  vaults  in  a  roof. 

Groined    Ceiling. — A  surface   formed  of  three  or  more  curves,  so   that   every  two  may  form  a 

groin,  all  the  groins  terminating  at  one  extremity  in  a  common  point. 
Groove,  or  Mortise. — The  channel  made  by  a  joiner's  plane  or  chisel  in  the  edge  of  a  moulding, 

sill,  or  rail,  to  receive  the  tenon. 
Ground   Floor. — The  lowest  story  of  a  building. 
Ground    Plane. — A  line  forming  the  ground  of  a  design  or  picture,  which  line  is  a  tangent  to 

the  surface  of  the  face  of  the  globe. 
Ground   Plot. — The  ground  upon  which  a  building  is  placed. 
Grounds. — A  term   used   by  joiners  to  designate   narrow  strips  of  wood  put   in  walls  to  receive 

the  laths  and  plaster. 

GuTT^,  or  Drops. — Those  frustra  of  cones  in  the  Doric  entablature  which  occur  in  the  architrave 

below  the  tenia,  under  each  triglyph. 
Gutter. — A  kind  of  canal  in  the  roofs  of  houses  to  receive  and  carry  off  rain-water. 


PLATE    LX. 

Given,  one  of  the  Body-ribs,  the  Angles  straight  upon  the  Plan,  and  the  ascent  of  a  Q-roin  not 
standing  upon  level  ground,  to  find  the  form  of  the  ascending  Arches  and  the  Angle-ribs. 

Let  baa  at  E  be  the  angle  of  the  ascent ;  from  the  point  b  make  b  c  perpendicular  to  a b, 
and  describe  the  rampant  curve  B ;  then  draw  the  diagonal  ab  at  E,  and  make  b  c  perpendicular 
to  it,  and  equal  to  bo  at  B;  then  draw  the  hypothenuse  ac,  and  describe  the  angle-rib  E  in 
the  same  manner  as  that  of  B. 

To  find  the  length  of  the  Jack-ribs,  so  that  they  shall  fit  to  the  Jtake  of  the  Groin. 

Draw  lines  up  from  the  plan  to  the  arch,  as  at  D,  in  the  same  manner  as  explained  hereto- 
fore; then  the  arch  from  «  to  a  is  the  first  jack-rib,  from  b  to  b  the  second,  and  from  c  to  <? 
the  third,  etc. 

To  range  the  Angle-ribs  for  these  Groins. 

Get  the  ribs  out  in  two  halves ;  'then  the  bottom  of  the  ribs  must  be  beveled  agreeably  to 
the  ascent  of  the  groin,  and  the  plan  of  it  must  be  drawn  upon  the  level,  and  from  thence  they 
may  be  drawn  perpendicular  from  the  plan  to  the  rake  of  the  rib ;  then  take  a  mould  to  the 
form  of  the  rib,  or  the  rib  itself,  and  slide  this  agreeably  to  the  rake  to  the  distance  that  is 
marked  upon  the  bottom  to  be  backed  off;  this  will  show  how  much  the  rib  is  to  bevel  all 
aroimd. 

(134) 


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GLOSSARY.  135 


H. 


Halving. — The  junction  of  two  pieces  of  timber,  by  inserting  one  into  the  other;    in  some  cases 

preferable  to  mortising. 
Hand-Railing. — The   art  of   forming  hand-rails   ai'ound   circular   and   elliptical  well-holes,  without 

the  use  of  the  cylinder. 
Hanging-Stile. — That  to  which  the  hinges  are  affixed,  particularly  of  doors  and  windows. 
Heel  of  a  Rafter. — The  end  or  foot  which  rests  upon  the  wall-plate. 
Helix. — The  cm-ling  stalk  under  the  ilower  m  the  Corinthian  capital. 
Hem. — The  spiral  projecting  part  of  the  Ionic  capital. 
Hexasttle. — A  building  having  six  columns  in  front. 
Hood-Mould  ;   (in  Gothic  architecture.) — See  Drip. 
Htpcethral. — Open  at  the  top ;  having  no  roof. 
Htperthtron. — The  lintel  of  a  door-way. 
Hypotrachelion. — A  term   given  by  Vitruvius  to  the  slenderest   part  of  the  shaft  of  a  column 

where  it  joins  the  capital.      It  signifies  the  part  under  the  neck. 


I. 

Ichnography. — The  transverse   section  of   a  building,  on  which  is  represented  the  circumference 

of  the  whole   edifice;    the   different  rooms  and   apartments,  with   the   thickness  of  the  walls; 

the  dimensions  and  situation  of  the  doors,  windows,  and  chimneys ;  the  projection  of  columns ; 

and  everything  that  could  possibly  be  seen  in  such  a  section  if  made  in  reality. 
Impost. — The   layer  of  stone  or  wood  that   crowns   a   door-post   or   pier,  and  which   supports   the 

base  line  of  an  arch  or  arcade;   it  generally  projects,  and  is  often  formed  of  an  assemblage 

of  mouldings. 
Inch. — The   twelfth   part   of   a   foot.       For   the   purpose   of   reckoning   in   decimal   fractions   it   is 

divided  into   ten   parts   or   integers. 
Inclined  Plane. — One  of  the  mechanical   powers  used  for  raising   ponderous  bodies;   a  declivity 

of  a  hill,  etc. 
Insular  Column. — A  column  standing  by  itself. 
Insulated. — Detached  from  another  building. 
Intaglio. — Any  surface  with   figures   in   relief    on   it. 
Intercolumniation. — The  distance  between  two  columns. 
Intrados. — The  under  curved  surface  or  soffit  of  an  arch. 
Inverted  Arches. — Such  as  have  their  intrados  below  the  centre  or  axis. 


PLATE    LXI. 

GEOMETRICAL     STAIR-LINES. 

This,  and  the  two  succeeding  plates,  contain  carefully  prepared  diagrams  of  stair-lines.  Those 
who  have  paid  attention  to  this  branch  of  art,  will  at  once  comprehend  their  value  and  meaning, 
and  will  be  able  to  turn  them  to  useful  account  by  means  of  the  accompanying  explanations. 

As  each  of  the  plates  is  intimately  connected  with  the  other,  our  reference  must  necessarily 
be  general. 

Plate  LXI.,  ground  plan  on  the  line  AW;  lay  off  one-half  the  number  of  steps  that  is 
required  in  the  cylinder;  in  this  there  are  five;  the  half-pace  is  considered  equal  to  one;  the 
manner  of  doing  this  is  shown  on  Plate  LXII.;  from  the  line  of  the  string  draw  C  P  at  right- 
angles  to  C  S ;  from  C  to  T  half  a  step ;  the  distance  from  T  to  P  equals  two  steps ;  with  a 
radius  from  bk  make  an  intersection,  the  line  VO;  from  the  point  of  intersection,  draw  lines 
ToP,  and  where  these  lines  cut  the  cylinder  at  d^,  t  gives  the  position  of  the  risers. 

We  will  now  return  to  Plate  LXI.  Draw  the  tangent  L  N  through  the  centre  of  the  rail ; 
make  L  R  equal  to  the  height  of  two  and  a  half  risers ;  make  the  line  R  S  T  equal  to  the  com- 
mon plane  or  pitch-board,  cutting  the  tangent  at  N ;  from  N  draw  the  intersection  N  S,  extend- 
ing to  e ;  draw  e  o  B  through  the  centre  of  the  rail  and  at  rightangles  to  the  intersection ;  draw 
H  0  and  P  B  parallel  to  N  f ;  .extend  P  B  both  ways ;  make  B  A  equal  to  P  S  ;  draw  A  F, 
extended  to  C,  cutting  the  intersection  at  e.  This  gives  the  required  plane,  also  the  semi-major 
axis,  and  the  plumb-bevel,  which  is  shown  at  A,  and  also  at  Fig.  4,  Plate  LXIII.  To  obtain 
the  bevel  for  the  joint,  draw/W,  and  where  it  intersects  at  V,  draw  VZ;P.  The  line  that  inter- 
sects at  M  is  at  rightangles  to  VP;  and  with  M  for  a  centre,  draw  the  quadrant;  with  the 
same  centre  extended  to  N,  draw  the  quadrant  NW;  then  MXW  is  the  bevel  for  the  end  of 
the  joint,  and  is  shown  at  Fig.  3,  Plate  LXIII.      For  the  spring-bevel  at  the  intersection  at  T, 

(136) 


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Sam-'  Slcar.  Ar 


■Rosen-tKaTs-Lj-lh    I'J.U' 


GLOSSARY.  137 


Jack-Rafters. — The  jack-timbers,  wHcli  are  fastened  to  the  hip-rafters  and  the  wall-plates. 
Jambs. — The  side  pieces  of  any  opening  in  a  wall  which  bear  the  piece  that  sustains  the  super- 
incumbent weight. 

Joinery. — A  term  applied   in   building   to  designate  the  finer    and   more    ornamental   parts  of  the 
wood-finishing. 

Jointer. — ^^A  tool  used  for  straightening  and  preparing  wood  for  joints,  etc. 


K. 

Kerf. — The  slit  or   cut  made  by  a  saw  in  a  piece  of  stone  or  timber. 
Kins-Post. — The  middle  post  in  a  section  of   rafters. 


L. 

Label;    (in    Gothic    architecture.) — A  name   for   the  drip  or  hood-moulding  of   an  arch  when  it  is 

returned  square. 
Lacunar. — The  same  as  Soffit. 
Lantern. — A  turret    or   tower   placed   above  a  building    or    dome,  pierced  with  windows    to  admit 

light  or  to  aid  in  ventilation. 
Larmier. — Called  also  Corona,  which  see. 

Lath. — A  narrow  slip  of  wood,  usually  employed  in  plastering. 
Leaves. — Ornaments  representing  natural   leaves.      The  ancients  used   two  sorts  of  leaves,  natural 

and   imaginaiy.      The    natural  were   those    of  the   laurel,  palm,  acanthus,  and   olive. 
Level. — A  surface  which  inclines  to  neither  side. 

Lining. — Covering  for  the  interior,  as  casing  is  covering  for  the  exterior  surface  of  a  building. 
Lintel. — A  piece  of  timber  or  stone,  placed  horizontally  over  a  door,  window,  or  other  opening. 
List,  or  Listel. — The  same  as  fillet  or  annulet. 
Listing. — The  cutting  the  sapwood  out  of  both  edges  of  a  board. 
Loop;  (Gothic.) — A  small,  narrow  window. 
Louvre  ;  (Gothic.) — A  window  in  a  tower  or  turret. 
LuFFBR  Boarding. — The  same  as  blind-slats. 

S 


PLATE    LXII. 

GEOMETRICAL     STAIR-LINES.  — (Continued.) 

draw  m  n  at  rightangles  to  P  S ;  at  n  as  a  centre  draw  tlie  quadrant,  from  whicli  the  line 
extended  to  draw  P  is  the  required  bevel.  This  will  not  be  required,  if  a  tip  is  taken  oif  each 
end  of  the  mould,  and  it  is  slid  on  the  square  edge  of  the  plank  according  to  the  plumb-bevel 
shown  on  Fig.  4,  Plate  LXIII.  ;  draw  the  centre  of  the  rail  G  C,  Plate  LXIII.,  Fig.  2,  equal 
to  P/,  Plate  LXL  The  chord  P^,  Plate  LXI.,  transfer  to  GL,  Fig.  2,  Plate  LXIII.;  draw 
the  line  A  L  K  extended,  and  at  rightangles  draw  A  B,  which  gives  the  quadrant  of  the  rail ;  draw 
L  n  and  c  a  at  rightangles  to  A  G ;  on  the  major-axis,  with  a  radius  of  A  E,  with  A  for  a 
centre,  make  an  intersection  on  the  lines  A  K,  A  B  ;  draw  the  lines  L  H  c  a  at  rightangles  to  A  G, 
or  parallel  to  the  major-axis ;  at  the  points  of  intersection  drop  perpendiculars  to  cut  these  lines. 
This  at  once  gives  the  exact  quantity  of  the  ellipses  for  the  rail.  Draw  the  lines  A  H  and  A  C ; 
G  shows  the  centre  of  the  rail ;  with  half  the  width  in  the  compasses,  and  L  and  C  for  centres, 
mark  the  width  of  rail  on  the  lines  A  K,  A  B ;  these  lines  extended,  cutting  A  H  and  A  C,  give 
the  points  that  the  trammel  will  pass  through.  Any  quantity  of  straight  wood  may  be  added,  and 
is  drawn  parallel  to  the  line  A  C.  In  order  to  determine  the  width  of  the  mould  on  the  major- 
axis,  and  also  to  set  the  trammel,  a  new  and  beautiful  principle  is  shown.  Draw  the  diagonal 
G  E,  extended  with  one-half  of  the  width  of  the  rail,  on  each  side  of  the  major-axis ;  cutting  the 
diagonal  lino  GE,  let  fall  perpendiculars,  then  MN  is  the  given  width  of  the  mould.  In  its 
application,  the  stuff  may  be  cut  square  through  or  vertically,  at  the  discretion  of  the  workman. 
Either  way  produces  the  same  result  —  a  perfectly  square  edge  on  the  plank.  The  manner  of 
sliding  the  mould  is  shown  at  Fig.  4,  Plate  LXIII.,  on  which  will  also  be  found  half  the  distance 
that  the  plumb-level  makes  through  the  plank  with  the  centre  line    marked  on   the    edge  of  the 

mould;    thus  the  plank  is  equally  divided  from  its  centre. 

• 

(138) 


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GLOSSARY.  139 


M. 


Machicolations  ;  (in  Gothic  architecture.) — Small  openings  in  an  embattled  parapet  for  the  dis- 
charge of  missiles  upon  the  assailants.  Frequently  these  openings  are  beneath  the  parapet ; 
in  which  case  the  ivholc  is  brought  forward  and  supported  by  corbels. 

Mechanical  Carpentry. — That  branch  of  carpentry  which  teaches  the  disposition  of  the  timbers 
according  to  their  relative  strength,  and  the  strains  to  which  they  are  subjected. 

Medieval  Architecture. — The  architecture  of  England,  France,  and  Germany,  during  the  middle 
ages,  including  the  Norman  and  early  Goth'c  styles. 

Members. — The  different  parts  of  a  building ;  the  different  parts  of  an  entablature ;  the  different 
mouldings  of  a  cornice,  etc. 

Metope. — The  square  space  between  two. 

Mezzanine. — A  low  story  introduced  between  two  principal  stories.  '' 

Minute. — The  sixtieth  part  of  the  diameter  of  a  column. 

Mitre. — An  angle  of  forty-five  degrees ;    the  half  of  a  rightangle. 

Modillion. — An  ornament  in  the  entablature  of  the  richer  orders,  resembling  a  bracket. 

Module. — The  semi-diameter  of  a  column.      As  a  semi-diameter  it  consists  of  only  thirty  minutes. 

Mouldings. — Those  parts  of  an  order  which  are  shaped  into  curved  or  square  forms. 

Mutule. — A  projecting  ornament  of  the  Doric  order  which  occupies  the  place  of  the  modillion,  in 
imitation  of  the  ends  of  rafters. 

Mullion  ;   (in  Gothic  architecture.) — The  framework  of  a  window. 

N. 

Naked. — Applied  to  the  unornamented  surface  of  a  wall,  column,  or  other  part  of  a  building. 
Nads,  or  Cella. — That  part  of  a  temple  within  the  walls. 
Newel. — The  solid  around  which  the  steps  of  stairs  are  turned. 
Niche. — A  square  or  cylindrical  cavity  in  a  wall  or  other  solid. 

0. 

Obelisk. — A  tall  slender  frustum  of  a  pyramid. 

Octastyle. — A  building  with  eight  columns  in  front. 

Ogee. — The  same  as   Cyma. 

Order. — An  assemblage  of  parts,  consisting  of  a  base,  shaft,  capital,  and   entablature.       Of  the 

orders  there  are  five — the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite. 
Ordonnance. — The  arrangement  of  a  design,  and  the  disposition  of  its  several  parts. 
Ovolo. — A  moulding  sometimes  called  a  quarter  round,  from  its  profile  being  the  quadrant  of  a 

circle.      When  sculptured  it  is  called  an  Echinus. 


PLATE    LXIII. 

GEOMETRICAL     STAIR-LINES.  — (Continued.) 

Plate  LXII.  shows  the  half-twist.  The  drawings  are  so  nearly  alike,  that  a  brief  description 
will  here  be  sufficient.  The  only  difference  is  explained  as  follows :  In  this  plate,  the  height  of 
both  wreaths  is  taken  together  on  the  line  X  Z ;  the  height,  which  is  equal  to  two  and  a  half 
risers  at  the  intersection  of  the  tangents  at  Y,  makes  YK  equal  to  the  whole  diameter;  extend 
Y  both  ways  to  F  C ;  draw  F  K  where  P  i  is  intersected ;  at  P  draw  P  E  parallel  to  j  i  D  c, 
extended  to  B.  To  the  tangent  Y  K  draw  D  E,  at  rightangles  to  Y  X ;  from  D  through  the 
centre  of  the  rail  at  C,  draw  the  intersection ;  the  remainder  of  the  drawing  is  the  same  as  on 
Plate  LXI.  ;  make  o  L  equal  to  P I ;  the  distance  A  B  is  the  semi-diameter  of  the  raking  mould, 
Fig.  1,  Plate  LXIII. ;  the  distance  F  P  is  the  semi-diameter  of  the  mould  for  the  level  part ;  the 
right  line  E  H  is  the  joint ;  all  the  centre-joints  are  at  rightangles  with  the  face  of  the  plank ; 
the  bevel,  as  applied  to  the  level,  is  shown  at  A  B  C  D,  Fig.  1,  Plate  LXIII.,  and  its  application 
is  the  same  as  shown  on  Fig.  4.  The  position  of  the  rail-landing  is  shown  on  Plate  LXII. ;  the 
line  R  A  is  the  last  riser ;  g  h  extended,  is  the  common  plane  or  pitch-board ;  /  e,  the  half  of  the 
riser.       This  makes  the  level  balusters  the  same  height  as  the  long  balusters  on  the  steps. 

In  drawing  the  moulds,  the  centre  of  the  rail  is  first  laid  down,  and  from  this,  as  a  basis,  the 
moulds  are  constructed.  The  wreaths,  when  sawed  out,  at  once  give  the  outline  of  the  required 
curve ;  and  as  we  have  adopted  a  centre  line  for  its  formation,  the  centre  of  each  end  of  the 
wreath-piece  is  taken  as  a  point  to  square  from,  which  is  all  that  any  workman  requires.  Falling 
moulds  we  disapprove  of,  from  the  fact  that  their  application  to  cylindrical  surfaces,  in  nine  cases 
out  of  ten,  produces  a  deformed  and  crippled  curve. 

(!40) 


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GLOSSARY.  141 


P. 


Panel. — A  thin  board,  having  its  edges  inserted  in  the  grooves  of  a  surrounding  frame. 

Parapet. — A  breastwork ;  the  defence  around  a  terrace  or  roof. 

Parastat^. — Pilasters  standing  insulated. 

Pedestal. — The  substructure  under  a  column  or  wall ;   the  pedestal  of  a  column  consists  of  three 

parts — the  base,  the  die,  and  the  cap  or  coi'nice. 
Pediment. — The  low  triangular  crowning  ornament  of  a  facade ;  or  over  a  door,  window,  or  niche. 
Pend;  (Gothic.) — A  vaulted  roof  without  groining. 

Pendant;  (Gothic.) — A  hanging  ornament  in  highly  enriched  vaulted  roofs. 
Pinnacle;  (Gothic.) — A  small  spire. 
Peripteral. — A  term  used  by  the  ancients  to  express  a  building  encompassed  by  columns,  forming 

as  it  were  an  aisle  around  the  edifice. 
Peristtlium. — In  Greek  and  Roman  houses,  a  court,  square,  or  cloister. 
Perspective. — The  science  which  teaches  how  to  dispose  the  lines  and  shades  of   a  picture  so  as 

to  represent  on  a  plane  the  image  of  objects  exactly  as  they  appear  in  nature. 
Piazza. — A  continued  archway,  supported  by  pillars  or  columns ;   a  portico. 
Pier. — A  solid  between  the  doors  or  windows  of  a  building,  etc. 
Pilaster. — A  square  pillar  engaged  in  a  wall. 
Pile. — A  stake  or  beam  of  timber  driven  firmly  into  the  earth. 
Pillar. — A  column  of  irregular  form,  always  disengaged,  and   deviating   from  the   proportions  of 

the  orders ;    hence  the  difi'erence  between  a  column  and  a  pillar. 
Plinth. — The  square  solid  under  the  base  of  a  column,  pedestal,  or  wall. 
Porch. — An  arched  vestibule  at  the  entrance  of   a  church  or  other  building. 
Portico. — A  covered  walk;    more  usually  employed  to   denote   the  projection  before   a  church  or 

temple,  supported  by  columns. 
Principal-Rafters. — The  two  inclined  timbers  which  support  the  roof. 
Profile. — The  contour  of  the  different  parts  of  an  order. 
Projection. — The   prominence    of   the   mouldings    and    members    beyond   the   naked    surface  of   a 

column,  wall,  etc. 
Proscenium. — The  front  part  of  the  stage  of  a  theatre. 
Prostyle. — A  building  or  temple  with  columns  in  front  only. 
Purlins. — Pieces   of  timber  framed  horizontally  from  the  principals,  to  prevent  the  deflection  of 

the  intermediate  or  common-rafters. 
Pycnosttle. — An  intercolumniation  equal  to  one  diameter  and  a  half. 
Pyramid.— A  solid  with   a   square,  polygonal,  or   triangular   base,  terminating   in  a  point   at    the 

apex. 


PLATE    LXIV. 

On  this  plate  is  represented  a  moulded  architrave  of  the  description  usually  employed  in  the 
trimming  of  doors  and  windows,  drawn  to  one-half  of  the  full  size.  It  is  simple,  yet  effective 
in  the  style  and  character  of  its  finish,  and,  as  a  general  example,  may  prove  acceptable  and 
suggestive. 

A  shows  the  plan  of  the  architrave ;  B  the  position  of  the  door ;  C  the  rebate  strip  nailed 
upon  the  face  of  the  jamb.  D  E  describes  the  mitre  at  the  angle  of  the  head ;  F  F  F  the  return 
of  the  wash-board  moulding  at  the  back  of  the  architrave,  of  which,  in  its  continuation,  it  forms 
a  part ;  and  G  its  face  as  it  butts  to  the  architrave.  H  denotes  the  face  of  the  surbase  and 
the  manner  in  which  its  scotia  returns  up  and  around  the  architrave,  forming  a  part  of  its  finish- 
ing ;  and  T  is  its  section.  K  is  the  section  of  the  wash-board ;  L  shows  a  portion  of  the  floor 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  surbase  is  tongued  in;   and  M  denotes  the  face  of  the  wall. 

(142) 


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GLOSSARY.  143 


a. 


Quatrefoil;   (in   Gothic   ai'cliitccture.) — An  ornament   in   tracery,  consisting  of  four   segments  of 

circles,  or  cusps  within  a  circle. 
QuiKK-MouLDiNGS. — The   convex   part  of   Grecian   mouldings,  forming,  where  they  recede  at  the 

top,  a  reenticent  angle  with  the  surface  which  covers  the  moulding. 
Quoins. — The  corners.      See  Coins. 

R. 

Radius. — In  geometry,  is  the  semi-diameter  of  a  cu-cle,  or  a  right  line  drawn  from  the  centre  to 

the  circumference ;    in  mechanics,  the  spoke  of  a  wheel. 
Rails. — In  framing,  the  pieces  that  lie  horizontal  to  the  stiles. 
Raking. — A  term  applied  to  mouldings,  whose  arrises  are  inclined  to  the  horizon. 
Reticulated-Work. — That  in  which  the  courses  are  arranged  in  a  net-like  form.      The  stones  are 

square  and  placed  lozengewise. 
Rib. — An  arched  piece  of  timber  sustaining  the  plaster-work  of  a  vault,  etc. 
Ridge. — The  top  of  the  roof  which  rises  to  an  acute  angle. 
Relievo. — The  projection  of  an  architectural  ornament. 
Rustic. — Applied  to  courses  of  stone  or  brick  in  which  the  work  is  jagged   out  into  an  irregular 

surface ;    also,  work  left  rough  without  tooling. 


s. 

Sagging. — The  deflection  of  a  body  caused  by  its  own  weight,  when  suspended  horizontally  from 
its  bearings  at  either  end. 

Saloon. — A  lofty  hall,  usually  vaulted;   an  apartment  of  state,  etc. 

Sash. — The  wooden  frame  which  secures  the  glass  in  windows. 

Scantling. — A  term  for  pieces  of  timber,  usually  applied  to  those  used  in  the  framing  of  parti- 
tions, roof-timbers,  etc. 

Scarfing. — The  joining  and  bolting  of  two  pieces  of  timber  together  transversely. 

Scotia. — The  name  of  a  hollowed  moulding,  principally  used  between  the  tori  in  the  base  of 
columns. 

Shaft. — That  part  of  a  column  which  intervenes  between  the  base  and  capital. 

Shoulder.— The  plane  transverse  to  the  length  of  a  piece  of  timber  from  which  the  tenon 
projects. 

Shutter. — The  framed  paneling  which  shuts  up  the  aperture  of  a  window. 


PLATE    LXV. 

This  plate  contains  seven  designs  for  architraves  to  doors  and  windows,  of  varied  form  and 
finish,  drawn  to  full  size,  and  accompanied  by  portions  of  the  corresponding  wash-boards.  These 
may  be  applied  with  peculiar  propriety  in  many  instances ;  and  in  others  they  will  prove  valuable 
as  suggestive  examples.  In  the  latter  case  they  may  be  enlarged  or  diminished  at  pleasure, 
taking  care,  however,  to   proportion   their   mouldings   accordingly. 

Fig.  1  is   square    on   the   back,  which  receives   the  wash-board   and  its   moulding. 

Fig.  2;    only  the   scotia  of  the   surbase   is   continued   around   the   architrave. 

Fig.  3  with  4,  is  moulded  on  the  back,  and  its  mouldings  mitre  with  those  of  the  wash- 
board  and  its   surbase. 

Fig.  5  with   6,  is   square   on   the   back,   and   finishes   similarly  to  Figures  1  with  2. 

Fig.  7  with  8,  has  a  similar  finish  to  that  shown  on  Figures  3  with  4,  with  the  single 
exception  that   the   ovolo  of  the  wash-board  butts   to   the   square  of  the   architrave. 

On  Fig.  9  with  10,  the  wash-board,  with  its  mouldings,  butts  to  the  back  of  the  archi- 
trave.     In   this   example   there   is   no   surbase. 

Fig.  11  with  12 ;  there  is  no  surbase ;  the  moulded  wash-board  continues  around  the  archi- 
trave. 

Fig.  18  with  14,  only  differs   from   the   preceding   example   in   the  form  of   the  mouldings. 

(144) 


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GLOSSARY.  145 

Sill. — The   timber  or   stone    at    the   bottom    of   a  window  or   door.       The   ground    timbers  which 

support  the  posts  of  a  frame. 
Skirtings. — The  narrow  boards  which  form  a  plinth  around  the  margin  of   a  floor. 
Soffit. — The  ceiling  or  under  part  of  a  member   in  an  order.       It  means,  also,  the  under  side  of 

the  larmier,  or  corona,  in  a  cornice ;    the  under  side  of  that  part  of  the  architrave  which  does 

not  rest  on  the  columns.      See  Lacunar. 
SoMMER. — The  lintel  of  a  door,  window,  etc.      A  beam  tenoned  into  a  girder  to  support  the  ends 

of  joists. 
Spandrkl  ;    (Gothic.) — The  triangular   space   enclosed   by  one  side   of   an  arch,  and    two   lines  at 

right  angles  to  each  other — one   horizontal   and   on  a  level  with   the   apex  of    the  arch,  the 

other  perpendicular,  and  a  continuation  of  the  line  of  the  jamb. 
Spiral. — A  curve  line  of  a  circular  kind  which  in  its  progress  recedes  from  its  centre. 
STRETCHiNa-CotTRSE. — Bricks  or  stones    laid   in  a  wall  with  their   longest  dimensions  in  the  hori- 
zontal line. 
SuRBASE. — The  mouldings  immediately  above  the  base  of   a  room. 
Systyle. — An  intercolumniation  equal  to  two  diameters. 

T. 

Table. — Any  surface  or  flat  member. 

T^Ni. — A  term  usually  applied  to  the  lastel  above  the  architrave,  in  the  Doric  order. 

Templet. — A  mould  used  by  bricklayers  and  masons  for  cutting  or  setting  their  work ;    a  short 

piece  of  timber  sometimes  laid  under  a  girder. 
Tenon. — A  piece  of  timber  fitted  to  a  mortise. 
Tetrastyle. — A  building  having  four  columns  in  front. 
Torus. — A  moulding  of  semicircular  form,  used  in  the  bases  of  columns. 
Tracery;   (in  Gothic  architecture.) — A  term  for  the  intersection,  in  various  forms,  of  the  mullions 

in  the  head  of  a  window  or  screen. 
Transom;    (in  Gothic.) — A  cross  muUion  in  a  window.      The  impost  over  a  door. 
Trefoil;    (Gothic.) — An  ornament  consisting  of  three  cusps  within  a  circle. 
Triglyph. — The  frieze  ornament  in  the  Doric  order,  consisting  of  two  whole  and  two  half  channels, 

sunk  triangularly  on  the  plan. 
Trimmer. — A  small  beam  into  which  are  framed  the  ends  of  several  joists.      The  two  joists  into 

which  the  ends  of  the  trimmer  are  framed  are  called  trimming-joists. 
Truss. — A  framed   support   used   in  roofs,  or  to  support  floors,  when  the  weight  to  be  sustained 

is  very  considerable  or  the  girders  of  great  length. 

Tusk. — A  level  shoulder  made  above  a  tenon,  to  strengthen  it. 

Tympanum. — The  space  enclosed  by  the  cornice  of  the  sloping  sides  of  a  pediment,  and  the  level 

fillet  of  the  corona. 

T 


PLATE    LXVI. 

We  conclude  our  labors  in  the  present  work  by  presenting,  on  this  our  last  plate,  twelve 
carefully  designed   examples  of  moulded   panelings   for   doors,  drawn   to  half   of   the   full   size. 

It  is  hoped  that  these  will  prove  of  essential  service  to  the  practical  mechanic,  for  whose 
use  this  work  was  more  particularly  designed.  It  will  be  seen  that  they  are  susceptible  of 
easy  adaptation  to  particular  forms.  Being  very  distinctly  arranged  and  shown,  a  brief  descrip- 
tion will  suffice. 

Fig.  1  shows   a   sunk   panel,  with   its   moulding   planted   against,   and   flush  with   the   stile. 

Fig.  2  is   slightly  varied,  with   a   moulding   on   each   sinking. 

Fig.  3  has  its  fillet  framed  and  paneled,  with  mouldings  on  each  sinking ;  these  overlap, 
which  is  preferable  to  a  straight  joint,  as  it  prevents  the  unseemly  appearance  occasioned  by 
shrinkage. 

Fig.  4  is   almost   similar,   differing  only  in   the   foi'm  of   its   mouldings. 

Fig.  5  has  also  a  framed  fillet;  the  panel  moulding  is  in  this  case  the  largest,  and  comes 
flush  with   the   stiles,  which   adapts   it   more   particularly  for   a   sliding-door. 

Fig.  6  differs   only  in   the   form  of    its   mouldings. 

Figs.  7  and  8  have  sunk-panels,  with  the  largest  mouldings  upon  the  flllets,  and  projecting 
beyond  the   face  of  the   stile. 

Figs.  9  and  10  have  also  sunk-panels ;  these  have  small  mouldings  on  their  panels  and 
fillets ;    the  latter  being   flush  with   the   stile,  adapts   them   for   sliding-doors. 

Figs.  11  and  12  have  their  fillets  framed  into  the  stiles,  which  are  in  two  thicknesses, 
screwed  together.  This  construction  is  necessary  when  the  doors  are  of  large  dimensions,  or 
extra   strength   is   required.      On   these   examples   the   mouldings  are   bold   and   eSective. 

(UO) 


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a  am  aioan  Axcb.' 


KosenthalsLiUiP-KiU 


(JLOSSAUV  147 


V. 


Vault. — An  arched  roof,  so  constructed  that  the  stones  or  other  materials  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed support  and  keep  each  other  in  their  places. 
Vermiculated  Rustics. — Stones  worked  or  tooled  so  as  to  appear  as  if  eaten  by  worms. 
Vestibule. — An  ante-hall,  lobby,  or  porch. 
Vice;  (in  Gothic.) — A  spiral  staircase. 
Volute. — The  scroll  in  the  Ionic  capital. 

w. 

Wainscot. — The  lining  of  walls;   mostly  paneled. 

Wall-Plates. — Pieces  of  timber  so  placed  as  to  form  the  supports  to  the  roof  of  a  building. 
Well. — The  space  occupied  by  a  flight  of  stairs;   the  space  left  in  the  centre,  beyond  the  ends 
of  the   steps,  is   called  the  well-hole. 

z. 

Zigzag. — An  ornament  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  letter  Z. 
ZoPHORUS. — See  Frieze. 


GEOMETRICAL   DEFINITIONS. 


A  POINT  is  that  which  has  neither  length,  breadth,  nor  thickness,  but  position  only. 

A  line  is  that  which  has  length,  without  breadth  or  thickness. 

A  right  or  straight  line  preserves  the  same  direction  between  any  two  of  its  points. 

A  curve  or  curved  line  changes  its  direction  at  every  point. 

A  surface  is  that  which  has  length  and  breadth,  without  any  height  or  thickness. 

A  plane  is  a  surface,  such  that,  if  any  two  of  its  points  be  joined  by  a  straight  line,  that  line 
will  lie  wholly  in  the  surface. 

When  one  straight  line  meets  another  straight  line,  without  being  inclined  to  it  on  the  one 
side  any  more  than  on  the  other,  the  angle  formed  is  called  a  rightangle,  and  the  two  lines  are 
said  to  be  perpendicular  to  each  other. 

An  angle  less  than  a  rightangle  is  an  acute  angle. 

An  angle  greater  than  a  rightangle  is  an  obtuse  angle. 

A  polygon  is  a  portion  of  a  plane  terminated  on  all  sides  by  lines. 

A  polygon  of  three  sides  is  a  triangle ;  one  of  four  sides,  a  quadi-ilateral ;  one  of  five,  a  pen- 
tagon ;  one  of  six,  a  hexagon ;  one  of  seven,  a  heptagon ;  one  of  eight,  an  octagon ;  one  of  nine, 
a  nonagon ;   one  of  ten,  a  decagon. 

A  trapezium  is  a  quadrilateral  which  has  no  two  of  its  sides  parallel ;  a  trapezoid  is  a  quadri- 
lateral which  has  two  of  its  sides  parallel ;  a  parallelogram  has  its  opposite  sides  parallel ;  a  rhom- 
bus has  its  opposite  sides  equal  and  parallel — its  angles  not  rightangles ;  a  rectangle  has  its 
opposite  sides  parallel,  and  its  angles  rightangles. 

A  square  has  all  its  sides  equal. 

A  regular  polygon  is  one  whose  sides  and  angles  are  equal  to  each  other. 

An  irregular  polygon  is  one  whose  sides  and  angles  are  not  equal. 

A  polygon  is  said  to  be  inscribed  in  a  circle  when  the  vertices  of  its  angles  lie  in  the  cir- 
cumference. 

A  circle  is  a  portion  of  a  plane  bounded  on  every  side  by  a  curved  line,  every  point  of 
which  is  equidistant  from  a  point  within,  called  the  centre;  the  radius  is  a  right  line  drawn  from 
the  centre  to  the  circumference ;  the  diameter  is  a  line  passing  through  the  centre,  and  terminated 
on  both  sides  by  the  cu-cumference ;    an  arc  is  any  part  of  the  circumference. 

A  chord  is  a  right  line  which  joins  the  extremity  of  an  arc ;  a  segment  is  the  part  of  a 
circle  included  between  an  arc  and  its  chord;  a  sector  is  the  part  of  a  circle  included  between  an 
arc  and  two  radii  drawn  to  its  extremities;  a  line  is  tangent  to  a  circle  which  does  not  inter- 
sect it.  The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees ;  it  will  be 
observed  that  an  angle  of  45°  is  the  half  of  a  rightangle ;  an  angle  of  60°  is  two-thirds  of  a  right- 
angle;   and  the  chord  of  60°  is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle. 

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